The era of the reign of the Umayyads (661 - 750), the first dynasty of the Arab Caliphate, was marked by the complete victory of Islam over a vast territory from Afghanistan. The lands that had been in the orbit of Greco-Roman and then Byzantine culture for centuries became part of a completely different world in a matter of years. This became possible only thanks to the balanced policy of the first caliphs, who were tolerant of Christians and Jews and willingly borrowed the achievements of local culture from the conquered lands.
The nomadic Arabs had no idea about monumental architecture; Muslims prayed in the open air, and the first mosques were simply fenced courtyards. However, when confronted with the urban culture of the Middle East, the caliphs realized its many charms and wished to affirm the victory of Islam by building impressive religious monuments. The best masters of Persia, regardless of their religion, were involved in the fascinating process of creating new architecture.
The Umayyad Mosque (Jam Bani Umay), built in the new capital of the empire, the city of Damascus (Syria) in 715, became a valuable landmark of the era. The place where the mosque was built has been considered sacred for two thousand years. In the 1st millennium BC. e. here stood the Aramaic temple of the god Hadad; in the Roman era, the temple of Jupiter was erected in its place. Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be destroyed and the Christian Church of John the Baptist to be built. When Damascus was captured by Muslims, they did not destroy the church and did not take it away from the Christians, but prayed in the temple with them, because they revered the Baptist under the name of the prophet Yahya. However, then Caliph al-Walid I bought the church from the Christian community and ordered it to be dismantled and a mosque erected in its place.
In full accordance with the tastes of the early Muslims, the Umayyad Mosque is an open rectangular courtyard that can accommodate many hundreds of believers. However, the perimeter of this courtyard is decorated with a two-tiered colonnade, made in Byzantine forms, and in the direction of Mecca rises a huge three-nave prayer hall, not unlike a Byzantine basilica. Greek masters covered the outer walls and galleries of the hall with wonderful mosaics, which in their style do not in any way resemble Arab art. Cypress trees, flowers and birds, landscapes of cities with domes and colonnades seem to have come out of an Orthodox icon, and the golden background of the mosaic, changing and shimmering under the southern sun, makes one remember the walls of the churches of Ravenna and Constantinople.
Muslims highly reverence the ancient shrine. They claim that the real head of John the Baptist is kept in it and it is here that the prophet Isa, whom we know under the name Jesus Christ, will appear on earth during the second coming.
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus on the map
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Muslims from all over the world try to find themselves at least once in their lives in the Umayyad mosque. It is one of the most majestic temple buildings in Syria. For the architectural heritage of the state, the value of the building is considered truly colossal. In addition, its location is very symbolic. For the temple is in Damascus. It is the oldest metropolis in the world. Read the description of the Umayyad Mosque below.
Oldest city
So, this cultural and architectural monument is located in the Syrian capital. Scientists believe that the city was founded about a thousand years ago. At the moment, it is rightfully the largest religious center in the entire Levant. And its highlight is the Umayyad Mosque.
Let us remember that the Levant is all the states of the eastern Mediterranean. Among them are Jordan, Egypt, Türkiye, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, etc.
By the way, at one time the Apostle Paul visited the city of Damascus. After this, a new religious movement arose in the capital, which began to be called Christianity. By the way, the city is mentioned several times in the Bible.
Ancient history
In ancient times, the Syrian capital was conquered by the king of the Israeli state, David. And in 333 BC. e. Alexander the Great invaded this territory and captured the city. Several centuries later, the city of Damascus recognized the power of Rome.
On the spot where the mosque now stands, there was a temple of Hadad. In this territory, the ancient Arameans held their respective services. By the way, a basalt stele from that building has survived.
When the power of the Roman governors extended to the territory of Damascus, the temple was destroyed. And in its place a sanctuary of Jupiter was built. Later it became known as the Church of John the Baptist.
Note that in those days, for seven decades, the church became a refuge for both Christians and Muslims. Services were held simultaneously for these denominations. At the same time, having conquered Damascus in 636, the Arabs not only did not destroy the structure, but also erected a small extension of bricks near the temple.
Destruction of a Roman basilica
Meanwhile, the city began to turn into a real capital of a large caliphate. And the number of Muslims has increased greatly. And the huge Roman temple was no longer able to accommodate everyone. Accordingly, adherents of Christianity turned out to be superfluous.
By this time, the caliphs understood that it was high time to build their own sanctuary in the city, as in Al-Kufa, Mecca, Basra, and Medina. This building was supposed to differ for the better from Christian churches. It would counter them with the beauty of its decoration and architecture. But before construction began, the church was initially bought from Christians, and then completely destroyed.
By the way, subsequently all Christian religious buildings were destroyed. Some of them were turned into mosques. At the moment, only St. Mary's Church has been preserved. It is now considered the main cathedral of the Antioch Patriarchate.
Construction of a mosque
Having destroyed the Roman basilica, the Arab architects began the actual construction of a mosque on the same site. Construction work lasted one decade. Twelve thousand workers were involved in them.
The Damascus authorities spent all the financial resources that were then in the Syrian treasury on construction.
Also, famous architects from Persia, India and the Maghreb were involved in the work process.
In addition, a number of rulers of the Levant decided to contribute to the construction of the structure, providing a colossal amount of precious stones for this purpose.
Architecture of the building
As a result, the Umayyad Mosque (Syria) truly turned out to be majestic and very beautiful. It was separated from the city by thick walls.
You can enter the building from four sides through gates. By the way, at the left entrance there is a large wooden cart on huge wheels. Many believe that this structure is a ramming device. According to them, the great Tamerlane abandoned it when he stormed Damascus. Others believe that this cart is an ancient Roman war chariot.
Behind the gate is a courtyard lined with black and white marble slabs. Its length is 125 m and its width is 50. It is decorated with images of the Gardens of Eden and mosaics. By the way, this mosaic is rightfully considered the best decoration of the mosque. They say that they invited Constantinople craftsmen to make it. True, for a long time the mosaic was hidden under a large layer of plaster. And only in 1927 were restorers able to restore its former beauty.
There is a fountain and ablution pool in the center of the courtyard. As for the floor of the prayer hall, it is covered with carpets. There are almost 5 thousand of them there. Believers donated them to the mosque.
Minarets
Three minarets rise above the temple. They have been preserved almost in their original form. But, unfortunately, not all.
The oldest minaret is located in the northern part of the wall that surrounds the temple. The name of the structure is Al-Arouk Minaret. Alas, it is difficult to say what it looked like after construction. And after regular restoration work, the top of the building is made exclusively in modern style.
The minaret, which is located in the western part of the mosque, was named Al-Gharbiya. It was built in the fifteenth century and was crowned with a rather sharp spire.
Well, the southeastern minaret bears the name Isu, or Jesus. According to legend, when the Last Judgment comes, Christ will descend this minaret and end up in the mosque. After this, he must resurrect a prophet named Yahya. Then they will go to Jerusalem, where they will establish true justice throughout the Earth. By the way, this is why every day a completely new carpet is always laid in the place where Jesus’ foot steps.
Hussein Chapel
The huge mosque building also has its own secrets. So, in the depths of the courtyard, among the columns of the gallery, there is a small door that leads to the so-called. Hussein's chapel. It is perhaps one of the main shrines of the temple. It is in this building, in a capsule, that Hussein’s head is kept. He was the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and is considered a martyr. He was killed in one of the battles back in 681, and his head was cut off. After this she was taken to Damascus. By order of the Syrian ruler, the head was hung on the gates of the city. At one time, it was in this place that the legendary King Herod exhibited the head of John the Baptist. But we will return to this a little later.
When Hussein died, the birds, according to legend, began to emit only sad trills. And all the townspeople were crying. The ruler of Syria repented and ordered the head to be placed in a tomb made of gold. Then she was placed in a crypt, and a little later - in a mosque.
In addition, adherents of Islam believe that the hair of the Prophet Muhammad lies in the chapel. Allegedly, he cut them while he was in Mecca. Note that the prophet was then in the city for the last time.
Head of John the Baptist (Prophet Yahya)
In the center of the mosque there is also a capsule with the head of John the Baptist. In Rus' he is called John the Baptist, in the Muslim world he is called Yahya.
This shrine was found completely by accident. When construction work on the construction of the mosque had just begun, Syrian architects were laying the foundation. It was then that the grave was found. Believers claim that this was the burial place of John the Baptist. Be that as it may, the ruler ordered the grave to be preserved. As a result, she remained in the same place where she was found later. It is located in the very center of the courtyard.
The tomb is made of white marble. It is surrounded by glass niches. Through them, believers can put a photograph or memorial note inside. In addition, there you can give money to this saint as a gift.
To be honest, the story has not yet been fully clarified. They say that the grave of the Prophet Yahya contains only part of his relics. Other parts of the head are found in Amiens, Athos and Rome.
Rules for visiting the temple
The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus is considered a very hospitable place. And for people of absolutely any religion. Guests and believers, as a rule, always behave quite relaxed. They can pray, sit, read, lie down and even sleep. And small children love to roll on the marble slabs of the yard. At the same time, the temple servants always treat everyone calmly and democratically. They never judge anyone, much less kick them out.
Guests of Damascus visit the Umayyad Mosque for a nominal fee. However, tourists are not allowed on Friday. When entering the temple, you must remove your shoes. It can be given to servants for safekeeping. True, for an additional fee. Otherwise, you should carry your shoes with you. Representatives of the fairer sex are given special black capes.
An important detail: in Syria the climate is very hot. And that is why the marble floor in the great mosque of Damascus is often literally heated to the limit. Accordingly, it is simply impossible to move on such a surface. In a word, tourists in such a situation take socks with them.
Tests
The Umayyad Mosque, whose relics and shrines we examined, also went through a number of serious tests. Thus, some parts of the temple burned repeatedly. In addition, the building was damaged by natural disasters. Three times terrible earthquakes struck the temple. The Mongols, Ottomans and Seljuks also invaded the territory of Damascus. After such raids, the temple seemed to be completely destroyed. But despite this, the mosque was quickly restored. And the capital of Syria is still proud of this unique cultural monument.
The Great Mosque of Damascus, also known as the Umayyad Mosque, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. Located in one of the most sacred places in the old city of Damascus, it is of great architectural value.
The mosque contains a Treasury which is said to contain the head of John the Baptist (Yahya), revered as a Prophet by both Christians and Muslims. The head may have been found during excavations during the construction of the mosque. The mosque also contains the tomb of Salah ad-Din, located in a small garden adjacent to the northern wall of the mosque.
The site where the mosque now stands was occupied by the Temple of Hadad in the Aramaic era. The Aramaic presence was attested by the discovery of a basalt stele depicting a sphinx excavated in the northeast corner of the mosque. Later, in the Roman era, the Temple of Jupiter was located on this site, then, in Byzantine times, a Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist.
Initially, the Arab conquest of Damascus in 636 did not affect the church, as a structure revered by both Muslim and Christian parishioners. This preserved the church and worship, although the Muslims built an adobe brick extension against the southern wall of the temple. Under the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I, however, the church was purchased from Christians before being destroyed. Between 706 and 715 the existing mosque was built on this site. According to legend, Al-Walid himself began the destruction of the church by introducing a golden spike. From this point on, Damascus became the most important point in the Middle East and later became the capital of the Umayyad State.
Architecture
The mosque is separated from the bustling city by thick walls. The huge courtyard is paved with black and white polished slabs; to the left of the entrance stands an impressive wooden cart on huge wheels. Some say that this is a ramming device left by Tamerlane after the storming of Damascus, others consider the cart to be a war chariot from the times of Ancient Rome. The floor of the prayer hall is covered with many carpets - there are more than five thousand of them.
Interior plan of the Umayyad Mosque
In the prayer hall there is a tomb with the Head of John the Baptist, cut off by order of King Herod. The tomb is made of white marble, decorated with niches made of green relief glass. Through a special opening you can throw a memorial note, a photograph inside, or donate money to the Prophet Yahya (as Muslims call John the Baptist). One of the three minarets of the Umayyad Mosque (the one located on the southeast side) bears the name Isa ben Mariam, that is, “Jesus, Son of Mary.” According to the prophecy, it is according to it that on the eve of the Last Judgment Jesus Christ will descend from heaven to earth. The Hands and the Savior, dressed in white robes, will lie on the wings of two angels, and the hair will appear wet, even if it has not been touched by water. That is why the imam of the mosque lays a new carpet every day on the ground under the minaret, where the Redeemer’s foot should step.
Relics of John the Baptist (Yahya)
The story with the relics of the Forerunner has not been fully clarified. As Archimandrite Alexander Elisov (representative of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' to the Patriarch of Great Antioch and All the East) says, we can only talk about part of the head of the Baptist. There are three more fragments of the saint’s head - one is kept on Mount Athos, the other in Amiens, France, and the third in Rome, in the Church of Pope Sylvester.
In the mosque
The parishioners behave relaxed - they not only pray, but also read, sit, lie, some even sleep. Every day, except Friday, representatives of any faith are freely allowed into the mosque, and no ill will towards guests is felt here.
The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the entire world. It is located in the historical center of the Syrian city of Damascus and is of enormous historical and architectural value.
The Umayyad Mosque was built in the early eighth century on the site of the former Christian Church of John the Baptist. The mosque is named after Caliph Walid I of the Umayyad dynasty, who gave the order for construction. The best architects from Rome, Constantinople, Persia, and India were invited to build the building. Architecturally, the mosque resembles a Byzantine palace. It took more than ten years to build, and gold, pearls, mother-of-pearl and marble were widely used in decoration. The mosque courtyard is surrounded on all sides by an arched gallery, and the floor is paved with polished slabs.
For Muslims, the Umayyad Mosque has the status of a cult shrine; religious pilgrimages are made to it. The mosque houses the head and relics of John the Baptist, who is revered as a great prophet in both Islam and Christianity. Also on the territory of the mosque is the tomb of Salah ad-Din, the famous Muslim sultan and religious leader.
The Umayyad Mosque is an amazing and sublime place where representatives of any religion are allowed. The beauty and scale of the building are breathtaking, and the mosque is a huge hit among tourists.
Coordinates: 33.51165200,36.30655800
...This place has served for religious purposes since time immemorial. The ancient Aramaic people built a temple here in honor of their god Hadad. At the beginning of the 3rd century AD. the Romans erected a very impressive temple of Jupiter in its place. It occupied a rectangle 380 m wide and 310 m long. The huge columns that have survived to this day, which once adorned the entrance gates of the temple, rise to a height of 16 m, and above them, above the amazingly beautiful Corinthian capitals, rises, as if crowning the entire structure, a richly decorated a fragment of a pediment that has only partially survived.
150 years after the Temple of Jupiter was built, Emperor Theodosius ordered! destroy it, and in its place erect a Christian basilica, later dedicated to John the Baptist. But this building did not last long - in 661 Damascus was conquered by the Arabs and became the first capital of a huge caliphate, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the borders of India.
By order of Caliph Walid I in 705-715. the old Byzantine church was completely rebuilt into a mosque. Construction required colossal expenses: in terms of its scale and luxurious decoration, the Great Mosque was supposed to serve as a kind of monument to the triumph of Islam and outshine the splendor of the Christian church located in its place.
The form of early mosques goes back to the ancient Arabic type of buildings: a stone wall surrounds a large courtyard, to which several separate rooms adjoin. On one side of the courtyard there is a prayer hall with ablution facilities; a colonnade stretches along the other side. Magnificent examples of architectural art of this period are the mosque in Medina, the Qubbat al-Sakhra and al-Aqsa mosques in Jerusalem. But the Great Umayyad Mosque, al-Jamiyyah al-Umayyi, built at the zenith of the glory and power of the Umayyad Caliphate, became the first major religious building to reflect the religious beliefs of Muslims in architectural form. In the Middle Ages, this mosque was considered a wonder of the world, and although it was repeatedly robbed and burned, it remains today one of the most amazing monuments of Arab building art.
During the construction of the mosque, architectural details (in particular, Corinthian column capitals) from buildings of Byzantine and even Roman times were used. Arab architects completely changed the orientation of the building: the longitudinal colonnades of the Christian church turned into the colonnade of the prayer hall of the mosque, and the plan and interior space received completely new features. The Byzantine basilica was transformed into a columned mosque, the type of which by that time had already become the canon of Muslim buildings intended for prayer.
Powerful blank walls as high as a house separate worshipers from the noise and bustle of the surrounding city. A colonnade, preserved from a Roman temple, leads to the western door of the mosque. A glance through the portal reveals a huge courtyard, bounded on the right by a prayer hall and on the left by a colonnade. The main door opens into the entrance hall. And here the visitor will have an unexpected encounter with the most precious decoration of the Umayyad Mosque - its famous mosaics. Initially, they completely covered the internal and external walls, vaults and domed ceiling to the very top, the courtyard façade of the prayer hall. Now the mosaics are only partially preserved on the walls and vaults. They survived centuries under a thick layer of mortar, which the puritanical caliph ordered to cover them with, fearing that the objective images of the human world might anger Allah. Or maybe it was the other way around - the caliph turned out to be a sage who believed that over time, perhaps, the view of things would change. And he ordered not to destroy the magnificent works of art, but only to remove them from sight.
Hidden for centuries under a layer of plaster, the mosaics survived to this day and in 1927, thanks to the efforts of restorers, they saw the light of day again. Before the enthusiastic gaze of people of the 20th century, pictures of a simultaneously fairy-tale and real world, woven from smalt and gold cubes, opened up, with palaces and huts, flowing rivers and fruit-bearing trees, a world devoid of human presence, but constantly reminding of the tireless activity of the Creator. Fantastic structures with colonnades, porticoes and domes were inspired by images of late antique art. The technique of smalt mosaic and the nature of the arrangement of mosaic panels were borrowed from Byzantium. To execute these mosaics, the Umayyad Caliph ordered, according to legend, to call upon artists from Constantinople.
Particularly interesting are the mosaics of the entrance portico. On a golden background in green and brown tones, trees and bizarre architectural structures with semicircular two-story colonnades, towers and conical, slightly curved domes are depicted. In the foreground, along the entire length of the painting, is a river - apparently this is Barada, irrigating Damascus. On its banks there are castles, gardens, houses, trees that provide blessed shade. Some researchers believe that not only the panorama of Damascus is depicted here, but also the most characteristic views of other cities of the East, for example Jerusalem, Antioch, and Constantinople. Other compositions on the walls of the porticos represent various countries and places of pilgrimage. In the spaces between the windows there are images of fruit trees, ears of corn growing from vases, gracefully curved stems and acanthus leaves. These complex and varied compositions formed a multicolored mosaic carpet, softly shimmering in the shadows and sparkling brightly in the sun.
The exceptional quality of the mosaics is amazing. This concerns not only the excellent performance technique, but also the artistic level. A magnificent range of color tones unfolds on the gold base that makes up the general background. Their richness is especially evident in the depiction of trees with different shades of foliage - from green to blue-gray; The eye is also delighted by the image of the river in azure and aquamarine tones, as if bordered by the silver foam of the surf. The living drawings of trees are extremely good - cypress, olive, apple, pear and citrus, and the fruits, made with the help of the finest color nuances, are almost plastic.
Equally exquisite mosaics, “beautiful as a garden,” in the words of the Arab geographer Ibn Jubayr, cover the walls of Qubbat al-Khazneh, a public treasury built in the courtyard of the mosque at the end of the 8th century. This charming miniature domed structure has no direct entrance from the ground and stands on eight columns, in front of a large wall decorated with mosaics. The trunks of the columns went deep into the ground, as if under the weight of the walls that they support. On eight walls of the treasury, modern craftsmen have restored a beautiful mosaic, very close to the original: luxurious ornaments alternate with the image of date palms.
The huge rectangular courtyard of the mosque is framed on three sides by porticoes with two-tiered stone arcades on carved pillars. On the south side, the courtyard is closed by the building of a multi-columned prayer hall. Its courtyard façade was once an open arcade; high semicircular arches seemed to invite the worshiper to take refuge in the shade and coolness of the hall from the scorching sun in the courtyard. Now the windows and arched spans are covered with wooden walls and stained glass windows.
There are 22 entrances with gates leading from the courtyard to the prayer hall. The dimensions of the hall are enormous: length 136, width 37 m. Its architecture, like the architecture of the entire mosque, despite the passing centuries, has largely retained its original appearance. Two rows of slender marble columns with Corinthian capitals divide it longitudinally into three naves, each nave is crowned by a structure with a pointed roof. Thanks to the significant (about 5 m) distance between the columns, the space of the hall is freely visible in all directions. The longitudinal naves in the middle are divided into two parts by a wide transverse nave, exceeding them in height and covered with a gable roof, and in the middle, topped with the dome of Qubbat al-Nasr. Huge columns support the dome, carrying it far into the sky. This architectural form developed during the Umayyad era and since then can be found in many mosques around the world.
Three other architectural innovations in mosque design also date back to the Umayyads: the mihrab, a niche for prayer, the mimbar, a pulpit for reciting the Koran and sermons, and the minaret.
The niche in the wall of the mosque indicating the direction of Mecca, called the mihrab by the Arabs, was originally intended as a place of honor for the caliph or people of high position. There are four mihrabs in the Umayyad mosque. They are located in the southern wall of the prayer hall. Three of them are the mihrab of the Prophet's Companions. The large mihrab and the Hanifi mihrab were built simultaneously with the mosque, and the fourth, western one, was created today. Most interesting of all is the richly decorated Great Mihrab with ornaments made of colored marble inlaid with mother-of-pearl: it is crowned with a dome decorated with stalactitites - this decorative technique is often found in Arab architecture and even in furniture.
The preacher's pulpit, called a minbar or mimbar, is usually placed a few steps to the left of the prayer niche against the wall. A staircase leads from the pulpit to the hall. From the pulpit on Fridays the preacher reads the weekly prayer.
The birth of the minaret - a tall, narrow tower from the top of which muezzins call Muslims to prayer - was apparently the result of chance. The builders of the Umayyad mosque discovered the foundations of a Roman temple structure, which was also used to build a Byzantine church. The Roman temple had a tower at each of its four corners. The architect who built the mosque liked this idea, and he ordered the construction of four towers for the mosque on a Roman foundation. Gradually it became a habit to call believers to prayer from the minaret tower. Since then, not a single mosque in the world is conceivable without at least one such tower.
The vast courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque is shaded by three minarets rising above its walls. The northern, most ancient - minaret of the Bride, or al-Aruk (XI-XII centuries), is a simple quadrangular tower. The elegant round southwestern minaret - the Tower of Muhammad, or al-Gharbiya - was built in 1488 in the style of Egyptian Mamluk architecture. Its rectangular tower, topped with a slender turret with a hipped roof and a sharp spire, was erected above the western entrance to the courtyard of the mosque opposite the central part of its facade. The Minaret of Jesus Christ was built in 1340; it bears this name because, according to legend, in the last days Jesus Christ (Muslims call him “Prophet Isa”) must descend from heaven to earth here to help the few remaining faithful in the decisive battle against evil. All three minarets are the main architectural landmarks of old Damascus.
The muezzin, who calls the faithful to prayer, has a difficult service. Previously, five times a day he had to climb a spiral staircase to perform his duties from the minaret platform. It's already early in the morning. Even before sunrise, his cry pierces the silence of the night. True, now the muezzin sits in a small closet on the ground floor and entrusts his voice to the microphone; his call is heard by a loudspeaker mounted on the top of the minaret. It is more convenient, and most importantly, louder than before.
The Umayyad Mosque has another feature that cannot be neglected: in its prayer hall, between two columns, stands a large marble structure in the form of a cube topped with a dome. This is the tomb of St. John the Baptist, whom Muslims know as the Prophet Yahya and who is revered by both Christians and Muslims alike. There are especially many people praying here. Some of them touch the bars, stop their children in front of it, and kiss it.
The interior of the mosque used to have very rich decoration: the walls were covered with marble inlays, the floors were covered with expensive carpets. In the 19th century, especially during restoration after the fire of 1891, the prayer hall changed its appearance somewhat. The windows and openings of the arches of the northern wall were decorated with bright colorful stained glass windows, the floors were re-covered with Turkish and Persian carpets, and the hall was illuminated with heavy crystal chandeliers of the European type. But even after these changes, the architecture of the Umayyad mosque retained its inherent features.
The architecture of the mosque creates a space isolated from the outside world, conducive to contemplation and reflection. It attracts not only those who pray. Students come here to prepare their assignments in the silence of the mosque, townspeople tired of worries, artists and scientists looking for inspiration. In one of the many rooms of the mosque there is a restoration workshop engaged in the restoration of ancient mosaics.