Geography of Spain: relief, climate, minerals, nature. Spain: relief, climate and minerals Names and absolute heights of landforms in Spain

Spain is one of the most elevated countries in Europe - mountains occupy more than 90% of its territory.

Along the northern border, from the Bay of Biscay of the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea, stretches an extensive system of young Pyrenees mountains (the highest point is Mount Aneto, 3404 m). The ridges of the Pyrenees, stretching from west to east almost parallel to each other, are not very high (on average 2500 m), but their relief is very complex, there are many gorges and rock walls (among them is one of the highest cliffs in Europe - Governy, or Juverny, which has a height of about 1200 m, and the waterfall of the same name 800 m high), steep cliffs and impassable valleys. Many peaks are covered with snow all year round, which often covers the few passes - the weather here is very changeable. The Western Pyrenees is one of the greenest regions of Spain - about 1,200 species of higher plants grow here, with mountain forests climbing to a height of more than 2,400 meters. The eastern part is slightly poorer, but also has many rare species of flora and fauna.

Between the eastern Pyrenees and the Iberian Mountains stretch the low Catalan Mountains, the southeastern slopes of which drop off into the Mediterranean Sea. The Catalan Mountains (average heights 900-1200 m, peak - Mount Montseny, 1712 m) run for 400 km almost parallel to the sea coast and actually separate the elevated Aragonese plateau from it. The coastal plains developed in Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia, north of Cape Palos to the French border, are highly fertile, but the mountains themselves are dry and have little natural diversity.

Almost the entire central part of Spain is occupied by the ancient and highly dissected Meseta plateau (here is the highest point of the mainland of the country - Mount Mulacen, 3478 m) with a whole system of accompanying mountain ranges. This, the largest elevated plateau in Europe by area, has on average a rather insignificant height (about 660 m), but is literally replete with various plateaus (Torcal de Antequera, Ciudad Encantada, Old Castilian and New Castilian, etc.), folded-block ridges, deep river valleys and intermountain basins. In addition, numerous ridges divide the Meseta into several large massifs - the Cordillera Central divides it into northern and southern parts, the Sierra Morena, Sierra Nevada and Cordillera Betica are fenced off from the south, the Cordillera Subbetica - from the southeast, the Iberian and Cantabrian mountains , as well as the Picos de Europa massif (2648 m) - from the northeast and north.

In total, the Meseta has more than 70 mountain ranges, which turns its topography into a complex system of mountains, hills, plateaus and plains, occupying more than half of Spain's territory. Moreover, the Cordillera-Betica mountain system is considered the second highest in Europe, second only to the Alps, and Mount Mulacén (Sierra Nevada) is the southernmost part of Europe (37 degrees north latitude!), where snow remains in the summer. The Meseta's vegetation is mostly dry Mediterranean, with many rocky heaths in the mountains and agricultural areas in the valleys and lower slopes.

In the south of the country, between the Andalusian mountains, the Sierra Morena and the Atlantic coast, stretches the only large lowland of the country - the Andalusian. Here, in the area of the old foothill trough, the largest river in the country, the Guadalquivir, flows, forming a plain gradually expanding to the west. Almost all of it, like other relatively large valleys of the country (Duero, Guadiana, Miño, Tagus, Aragonese Basin and Ebro Valley), is occupied by wheat, citrus fruits, olives, cork oak and vineyards. With rivers that are so large at first glance, the country is experiencing a fairly severe shortage of water, especially noticeable in recent years.

The Balearic archipelago and the adjacent Pitius Islands are an ancient part of the Iberian Peninsula, separated from it by the subsidence of part of the seabed. In fact, this is a continuation of the Beta Mountains, which, due to isolation from the mainland, remained exactly as the entire territory of modern Spain was before the beginning of the era of Alpine folding. It is dominated by lowland and hilly plains. The Trumuntana mountain range, up to 1,445 meters high, stretches across the northwestern part of Mallorca, and the south is occupied by the dry and rocky Migjorn zone. Menorca is a low (up to 358 m) plateau, with steep ledges plunging towards the sea. The shores are replete with bays, and there are many karst formations in the elevated areas. The vegetation is Mediterranean, with a large number of evergreen shrubs and dry grasses, but on most islands it is greatly modified by humans.

The Canary Islands are one of the most naturally unusual areas in the world. The islands are of volcanic origin and represent a group of ancient volcanoes rising above the surface of the water. Moreover, due to different ages and morphologies, you can find here almost all forms of the volcanic landscape of the planet - lifeless lava and tuff fields, black gorges and “volcanic pipes”, dilapidated calderas of old volcanoes and high cones of young ones, with which the green slopes of fertile valleys contrast brightly. On the island of Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain - the Teide volcano (3718 m), and the adjacent Pico Viejo (3103 m) is the fourth highest in the country. And at the same time, the local mountains are constantly “growing”. In total, there are more than 640 volcanoes in the Canary Islands (there are more than 300 on Lanzarote alone!), and some of them are active. And on the island of Palma, a vast rock massif up to 2423 meters high surrounds the largest volcanic crater on the planet - the De Taburiente caldera (La Caldera).

In terms of their biology, the Canary Islands can easily be considered the most unique region of the country - almost half of the plants growing here are not found anywhere else on Earth, and a third of them are represented by ancient relict forms that became extinct in other regions of the planet many millions of years ago. On the slopes of Teide alone you can find no less than five zones of vegetation, and the total diversity of species here reaches 400! The composition of the fauna is much more modest, which is not surprising - the nearest mainland coast is 115 km away. However, even those few animal species that inhabit the archipelago are of great interest to science and tourists.

Climate
Spain is divided into three climate zones:

1. The north of the country (from Galicia to Catalonia) is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. This area is characterized by mild, wet winters and moderately warm summers.

2. Southeast coast (Andalusia and Extremadura) - Mediterranean-type climate, with exceptionally mild, short winters and dry, hot summers. This area is characterized by fairly low levels of precipitation, falling mainly in autumn and winter.

3. Central Plateau - here the climate is sharply continental, with significant differences between day and night temperatures (In the center of Spain in summer, the temperature during the day rises to +30 degrees, and at night drops to +15 degrees). Summer is hot and dry, winter is dry and cold.

In the highlands of Spain, there are often frosts and heavy snowfall during the winter months. In the Pyrenees (Andorra), the Sierra Nevada (Andalusia) and the Sierra de Guadar Rama (near Madrid), ski resorts operate all year round. In winter, snow often falls in Aragon and Northern Castile.

The islands of the Canary archipelago, located in the Atlantic, northwest of Africa, have a warm and mild climate. The average annual temperature is plus 20 degrees Celsius, the water is warm all year round. It rarely gets really hot here, but the sun shines quite intensely. Tourists are advised to use products that protect the skin from solar ultraviolet radiation.

Relief.
Spain is one of the highest mountainous countries in Europe. Lowlands, lying at an altitude of up to 200 m above sea level, occupy only 11% of the country's area. More than a third of Spain's territory is located at altitudes exceeding 1000 m. The most famous mountains are the Pyrenees, this is the most powerful and extensive mountain system in the country. The total length of the Pyrenees is 450 kilometers. In addition, in the north of the country there are the Cantabrian Mountains. The Picos de Europa mountain range is located in central Spain.

No less famous are the Cordillera mountains, the Catalan mountains, and the Sierra Nevada mountains. The relief pearl of the country is the unique and peculiar Aragonese plateau with unique flora and fauna. As for the valleys and lowlands, there are very, very few of them in Spain - only about ten percent of the total territory of the country. The largest and, perhaps, the only fairly large lowland is the Andalusian lowland.

Rivers and lakes of Spain.
The rivers of most of Spain have the advantage of rain-fed water and sharp seasonal fluctuations in flow with its maximum in winter-spring and minimum in summer, when large rivers become very shallow and many small ones dry up. Only in the north and northwest are the rivers full throughout the year. In the Pyrenees and Andalusian mountains, rain fed rivers are supplemented by snow.

Largest rivers in Spain- Tajo, Duero, Ebro, Segura, Guadalquivir, Guadiana. The lakes are small and located mainly in the mountains.

With its capital in the city of Madrid. Spain occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula. According to one version, the name of the country comes from the Phoenician expression “i-shpanim” - “shore of rabbits”. Occupies 4/5 of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, the Canary and Balearic Islands with a total area of 504,782 km² (together with small sovereign territories on the African coast, the cities of Ceuta and Melilla), being the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France. The average surface altitude of Spain is 650 meters above sea level. The country is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe.

Physiographic characteristics

Relief

The relief of Spain is very diverse. The center of the country is located 300 kilometers from the sea. The dominant role in the relief is played by systems of mountain ranges and high mountain plateaus.

Plateaus and mountains make up about 90 percent of its territory. Almost half of the country's surface is occupied by the vast Meseta plateau, the highest in Europe - with an average height of 660 meters. It is distinguished by alternating plateaus, folded-block ridges and mountain basins. The Cordillera Central divides the Meseta into two parts: northern and southern.

The Pyrenees are several parallel ridges stretching from west to east for 450 kilometers. This is one of the most inaccessible mountainous countries in Europe. Although their average height is not very high (just over 2500 meters), they have only a few conveniently located passes. All passes are at an altitude of 1500-2000 m. Therefore, only four railways go from Spain to France: two of them bypass the Pyrenees along the coast from the north-west and south-east, and two more railways cross the Pyrenees in the sections Aerbe - Oloron - Sainte-Marie and Ripoll - Prades, through a tunnel system. The widest and highest part of the mountains is the central one. Here is their main peak - Aneto Peak, reaching 3405 meters.

From the northeast, the Meseta is adjacent to the Iberian Mountains system, the maximum height (Mont Cayo peak) is 2313 meters.

Between the eastern Pyrenees and the Iberian Mountains stretch the low Catalan Mountains, the southern slopes of which drop off into the Mediterranean Sea. The Catalan Mountains (average heights 900-1200 meters, peak - Mount Caro, 1447 meters) run for 400 kilometers almost parallel to the Mediterranean coast and actually separate the Aragonese plateau from it. The areas of coastal plains developed in Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia north of Cape Palos to the French border are highly fertile.

The entire southeast of the Iberian Peninsula is occupied by the Cordillera Betica, which is a system of massifs and ridges. Its crystalline axis is the Sierra Nevada mountains. In height they are second only to the Alps in Europe. Their summit, Mount Mulacén, reaching 3,478 meters, is the highest point in peninsular Spain. However, the highest mountain peak in Spain is located on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands) - the Teide volcano, whose height reaches 3718 meters.

Most of Spain's territory is located at an altitude of about 700 meters above sea level. It is the second highest country in Europe after Switzerland.

The only large lowland - the Andalusian - is located in the south of the country. In the northeast of Spain in the river valley. The Ebro is the Aragonese plain. Smaller lowlands stretch along the Mediterranean Sea. One of the main rivers of Spain (and the only navigable one in the lower reaches) flows through the Andalusian lowland - Guadalquivir. The remaining rivers, including the largest: Tagus and Duero, the lower reaches of which are located in neighboring Portugal, Ebro, Guadiana, are characterized by sharp seasonal fluctuations in level and rapids.

Large areas of the country suffer from water shortages. Related to this is the problem of erosion - millions of tons of topsoil are blown away every year.

Climate

Spain is one of the warmest countries in Western Europe. The average number of sunny days is 260-285. The average annual temperature on the Mediterranean coast is 20 degrees Celsius. In winter, temperatures usually drop below zero only in the central and northern regions of the country. In summer, temperatures rise to 40 degrees and above (from the central part to the southern coast). On the northern coast the temperature is not so high - about 25 degrees Celsius.

Spain is characterized by very deep internal climatic differences, and it can only conditionally be entirely attributed to the Mediterranean climatic region. These differences are manifested both in temperature and in annual amounts and precipitation patterns.

On extreme northwest The climate is mild and humid with little temperature variation throughout the year and high rainfall. Constant winds from the Atlantic bring a lot of moisture, mainly in winter, when foggy and cloudy weather prevails with drizzling rain, almost without frost and snow. The average temperature of the coldest month is the same as in northwestern France. Summers are hot and humid, with average temperatures rarely below 16 degrees Celsius. Annual precipitation exceeds 1070 mm, and in some places reaches 2000 mm.

Completely different conditions in internal parts countries - on the plateau of Old and New Castile and the Aragonese plain. These areas are influenced by the plateau-basin topography, significant altitude and local continental air. They are characterized by relatively low precipitation (no more than 500 mm per year) and sharp temperature fluctuations between seasons. In Old Castile and the Aragonese plain there are quite cold winters with frosts and strong, sharp winds; Summers are hot and fairly dry, although maximum precipitation occurs during this season of the year. Nueva Castile has a slightly milder climate, with warmer winters but also low rainfall. Agriculture in all these areas requires artificial irrigation.

The soil

In northwestern Spain, brown forest soil is developed on the coastal plains and windward slopes of the mountains. The interior regions of the country - Old and New Castile, the Iberian Mountains and the Aragonese Plateau - are characterized by brown soil; in the driest treeless areas there is thin carbonate gray-brown soil with areas of salt marshes in relief depressions. Gray soils are developed in the arid landscapes of Murcia. They are non-gypsum-bearing and non-saline; when irrigated, they produce high yields of fruit and other crops. The heavy clay barros soil on the flat ancient alluvial plains is distinguished, especially favorable for the cultivation of rice.

Flora and fauna

The variety of climatic conditions - from humid in the north to arid in the south - determines the heterogeneity of the flora and vegetation of Spain. The north shows similarities with Central Europe, and the south with Africa. Traces of forest vegetation in Murcia, La Mancha and Granada indicate that in the past a significant part of the territory of Spain was afforested, but now forests and woodlands occupy only 30% of the country's area, with only 5% being full-fledged closed stands.

Evergreen oak forests grow in the north-west of the country. Mountain forests have more deciduous oak species, along with beech, ash, birch and chestnut, which is typical of Central Europe. In the interior of Spain, small tracts of dry evergreen forests, dominated by oak, interspersed with pine forests and shrubs, have been preserved in some places. In the driest areas of New Castile, the Aragonese plateau and Murcia, fragments of semi-deserts (usually on salt marshes) are found.

In those areas of Southern Spain where there is more rainfall, especially along the coast, typical Mediterranean shrub-herbaceous communities of the garrigue and tomillara type are present. Garrigue is characterized by the participation of local species of gorse and cornflowers, while tomillara is characterized by the presence of aromatic Lamiaceae (shrub species of thyme, rosemary, etc.), as well as cistus. A special variety of garrigue consists of scattered thickets of the dwarf fan palm, very characteristic of Andalusia, as well as communities dominated by tall alpha grass, or esparto, a hardy xerophyte that produces strong fiber.

Central European and African connections are evident in the fauna of Spain. Among European species, two varieties of brown bear (the large Asturian and smaller, black, found in the Pyrenees), lynx, wolf, fox, and wildcat deserve mention. There are deer, hares, squirrels and moles. The imperial eagle is found in Spain and North Africa, and the blue magpie, found on the Iberian Peninsula, has also been found in East Asia. On both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar there are genets, Egyptian mongooses and one species of chameleon.

Minerals

Minerals of Spain: The subsoil of Spain is replete with minerals. Particularly significant are the reserves of metal ores, the deposits of which are associated with the outcrops of the folded base of the Meseta or with volcanic rocks of mountain structures. Along the northwestern edge of the Meseta, within the Gallic massif, there are tin, tungsten and uranium ores in Caledonian and Proterozoic granite intrusions. A strip of lead-zinc-silver deposits stretches along the southern outskirts of Meseta. There is also a large deposit of mercury of global importance - Almaden. Iron ores are found in the north and south of Spain. They are confined to the structures of the Mesozoic and Alpine magmatic cycles. These are well-known deposits in the Bilbao region on the northern slope of the Biscay Mountains and in Almeria on the southern slope of the Beta Cordillera. In the north, in the Carboniferous deposits that fill the foothill depression of the Asturian Mountains, there is the largest coal basin in the country. In addition, there are small deposits of coal on the southern slope of the mountains and in some other areas. The Cenozoic sediments of intermountain and intramountain depressions contain strata of salts and brown coal. Significant reserves of potassium salts are located within the Ebro Plain.

It is worth noting, however, that most of the mineral deposits in the country are very modest in size and are quite depleted, like many deposits in other European regions, which makes Spain dependent on the import of minerals, mainly from North Africa.

Economy

Airports in Spain are subordinated to the public organization Spanish Airports and Air Navigation (Aeropuertos Españoles y Navegación Aérea (Aena)), which in turn is subordinate to the Ministry of Development (Ministerio de Fomento de España). According to the Catalan Autonomy Law of 2006, three Catalan airports were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Generalitat of Catalonia, which manages them jointly with the public organization Aerocat. With 50.8 million passengers in 2008, Madrid Airport (Barajas) is one of the busiest airports in the world. Barcelona Airport (El Prat) served 30 million passengers in 2008. Less busy airports are in Gran Canaria, Malaga, Valencia, Seville, Mallorca, Alicante and Bilbao.

Spanish airlines are: Air Europa, Air Nostrum, Air Pullmantur, Binter Canarias, Iberia LAE, Iberworld, Islas Airways, Spanair, Vueling Airlines.

Spain aims to have a million electric vehicles by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and improve the environment.

Light industry

Food industry

In the food industry, winemaking stands out (Spain is second only to France and Italy in the production of grape wines in Europe), the production of vegetable oil (1.7 million tons in 1996; Spain is the world leader in the production of olive oil (about 0.5 million tons per year ), fruits, vegetables and canned fish. Spain is among the top ten global producers of cars, ships, forging equipment and gas compressors, machine tools, petroleum products and chemical goods. Half of industrial production is concentrated in the northeast (Catalonia), the north of the country (Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country) and in Greater Madrid.

Agriculture

The leading branch of agriculture is crop production (provides over 1/2 of the cost of production). They grow wheat (about 20% of the sown area), barley, corn (in the central and southern regions of the country), rice (on the irrigated lands of the Mediterranean coast; its yield in Spain is one of the highest in the world), potatoes and sugar beets, legumes, tomatoes, onions, peppers, eggplants and other vegetables (vegetables occupy 60% of the cultivated area), olives - (the leading place for growing olives in the world) - (Andalusia, Castile-la-Mancha, Extremadura), citrus fruits and tobacco. Viticulture - on the Mediterranean coast and in the regions of Castile-la-Mancha, Extremadura. In the very south of the country, almonds (the leading export destination in Western Europe), dates and sugar cane (in Europe they grow only in Spain), figs, pomegranates, and cotton are grown.

Fishing

Spain is one of the top ten countries in the world in catching fish and seafood (1.1 million tons in 1996) and processing it, and is a major exporter of fresh fish and canned fish.

The bulk of the fishing takes place off the coast of the Basque Country and Galicia. The most commonly caught fish are sardines, hake, mackerel, anchovies and cod. Every year, 20-25% of the total catch is processed into canned food.

Banking sector

Spanish banks need recapitalization in the amount of 59.3 billion euros, according to the results of stress tests posted on the website of the Spanish central bank. The financial crisis in Spain led to an explosion of separatism. The economic crisis in Spain is gradually beginning to develop into a political one. On the one hand, regions with their extremely weak banks need help from the national government. On the other hand, some territories, in particular Catalonia, believe that without the guiding and guiding hand of Madrid they would feel much better.

The crisis was not limited only to the financial sphere. Property prices fell, which in turn increased unemployment. Spanish construction company Martinsa-Fadesa has declared bankruptcy after failing to refinance its €5.1 billion debt. In the second quarter, property prices in Spain fell by 20%. In the Castile-La Mancha region, approximately 69% of all buildings built in the past three years are still unsold. Deutsche Bank expects a 35 percent fall in property prices in Spain by 2011. Spain's Prime Minister, José Luis Zapatero, blamed the European Central Bank for exacerbating the situation by raising interest rates.

Population

Dynamics of population changes:

city - 6.5 million people;
city - 4.5 million people;
city - 6 million people;
city - 11.3 million people;
city - 6.2 million people;
city - 11.55 million people;
city - 18.6 million people;
city - 24.1 million people;
city - 29.9 million people;
city - 36.3 million people;
city - 45.97 million people.

The population of Spain is 46.16 million people (October 2011).

According to genetic research conducted by the University of Leeds in 2008, 20% of the modern population of Spain has Jewish ancestry, and 11% have Arab and Berber ancestry.

Story

On the southwestern coast of Iberia, a culture emerged in the Bronze Age, from which at the end of the 2nd millennium the Tartessian civilization was formed, which traded metal with the Phoenicians. After the depletion of the mines, Tartessus fell into disrepair.

Along the eastern coast of Spain in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Iberian tribes appeared; some hypotheses connect their ancestral home to North Africa. From these tribes comes the ancient name of the peninsula - Iberian. In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Iberians began to settle in fortified villages in what is now Castile. The Iberians were mainly engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and hunting, and knew how to make tools from copper and bronze. The Iberians used the Paleo-Spanish script created earlier by the Tartessians. The Iberian language was not related to Tartessian.

There is Roman evidence that Ligurians previously lived in Spain, but nothing is known about their existence in the historical period.

In the Late Bronze Age, the culture of the urn fields (a remnant of which in the historical period were probably the Lusitanians) penetrated into Iberia, and at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Most of Iberia is colonized by Celtic tribes. Some of the Celts who lived in the neighborhood of the Iberians, falling under their influence, created the Celtiberian culture; the Celts who lived in the western part maintained a relatively conservative way of life and were unliterate. The Celts of Iberia became famous as warriors. It was they who invented the double-edged sword, which later became the standard weapon of the Roman army and was used against its own inventors.

XX century

XXI Century

In March 2004, 13 explosions rocked the Atocha train station in Madrid, killing 191 people and injuring 2,050. This terrorist attack was organized by an underground Islamist organization that followed the ideology of Al-Qaeda. The explosions occurred three days before the parliamentary elections and were terrorists' response to the participation of the Spanish military in a military operation in Iraq. Most Spaniards blamed the attacks on the government of Prime Minister José Maria Aznar, which sent Spanish troops to support the US and UK. The Aznar government made this decision unilaterally, without coordinating it with the parliament (Cortes) and despite massive protests from civil society, which demonstrated in thousands of demonstrations against the participation of the Spanish army in the war. In addition, mass public surveys conducted by a government agency indicated that about 80% of the country's population was against Spain's entry into the war. Aznar's People's Party lost the elections on March 14, 2004.

At the beginning of 2004, the new socialist government of José Luis Rodriguez Zapatero made a sharp turn in Spanish foreign policy: from supporting the US course to solidarity with most EU countries. After winning the elections on March 14, 2004, the Socialist government withdrew Spanish troops from Iraq, thus fulfilling an important point in the electoral program of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE). In the subsequent parliamentary elections held in 2008, the PSOE won again. New parliamentary elections in Spain took place on November 20, 2011.

In 2005, same-sex marriage was legalized in Spain. Thus, Spain became the third state in the world, after Holland and Belgium, to recognize the legal equality of marriages regardless of the gender of the spouses. Same-sex marriage is now recognized in many countries, as well as in some US states.

One of the problems of modern Spain is the problem of immigration. Mostly, residents of the Maghreb and Latin American countries come to Spain. At the beginning of the new century, there were an estimated 2.5 million Latin Americans in the EU countries, 800 thousand of whom were in Spain. However, after the terrorist attacks of 2004, the attitude of the Spaniards towards immigrants changed significantly.

Political structure

Administrative division

50 provinces included in 17 autonomous regions. Also within Spain are 2 so-called autonomous cities (ciudades autónomas) in Africa - Ceuta, Melilla and sovereign territories of Spain.

Andalusia (Spanish) Andalucía)
Aragon (Spanish) Aragon)
Asturias (Spanish) Principado de Asturias)
Balearic Islands (Spanish) Islas Baleares, cat. Illes Balears)
Basque Country (Spanish) Pais Vasco, Basque Euskadi)
Valencia (Spanish) Comunidad Valenciana)
Galicia (Spanish) Galicia, galis. Galiza)
Canary Islands (Spanish) Islas Canarias)
Cantabria (Spanish) Cantabria)
Castile - La Mancha (Spanish) Castilla-La Mancha)
Castile and Leon (Spanish) Castilla y Leon)
Catalonia (Spanish) Catalonia, cat. Catalunya)
Madrid (as an autonomous region) (Spanish) Madrid)
Murcia (Spanish) Region of Murcia)
Navarre (Spanish) Navarra, Basque Nafarroa)
Rioja (Spanish) La Rioja)
Extremadura (Spanish) Extremadura)

Cities

The largest cities in Spain are:

Culture

Spain is rightfully considered an open-air museum. The vast expanses of this country carefully preserve cultural and historical monuments that have worldwide fame.

The most famous museum in Spain, the Prado Museum, is located in Madrid. Its extensive exhibition cannot be seen in one day. The museum was founded by Isabella of Braganza, wife of King Ferdinand VII. The Prado has its own branch, located in Cason del Buen Retiro and storing unique collections of Spanish painting and sculpture of the 19th century, as well as works by English and French painters. The museum itself presents large exhibitions of Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Flemish and German art. The Prado owes its name to the Prado de San Jeronimo alley, where it is located, laid out during the Age of Enlightenment. Currently, the Prado Museum's holdings include 6,000 paintings, more than 400 sculptures, as well as numerous jewelry, including royal and religious collections. Over the course of several centuries of its existence, the Prado was patronized by many kings.

It is believed that the very first collection of the Prado Museum was formed under Charles I, known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. His heir, King Philip II, became famous not only for his bad character and despotism, but also for his love of art. It is to him that the museum owes its priceless acquisitions of paintings by Flemish masters. Philip was distinguished by his gloomy worldview; it is not surprising that the ruler was a fan of Bosch, an artist known for his bizarre, pessimistic fantasy. Philip initially purchased Bosch's paintings for Escorial, the ancestral castle of the Spanish kings. It was only in the 19th century that the paintings were moved to the Prado Museum. Now here you can see such masterpieces of the Dutch master as “The Garden of Delights” and “The Hay Wain”. Currently, in the museum you can enjoy not only paintings and sculptures, but also theatrical performances designed to “revive” famous paintings. The first such staging was dedicated to the paintings of Velazquez and was a huge success with the public.

There are many more unique museums and galleries in Spain: the Picasso Museum and the National Museum of Art of Catalonia, located in Barcelona, the National Sculpture Museum in Valladolid, the El Greco Museum in Toledo, the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, the Museum of Spanish Abstract Art in Cuenca.

Spanish cuisine

Sport

The main sport in Spain has been football since the beginning of the 20th century. Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, motorsports and, more recently, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all of these disciplines. Today Spain is a leading world sports power; the development of sports in the country was particularly stimulated by the Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona. In 2008, Spain won the European Football Championship, and in 2010, they won the FIFA World Cup. In 2012, Spain won the European Football Championship over Italy with a score of 4:0.
In general, in the 2000s, the Spanish national teams won the World and European Championships in almost all team sports: football, basketball, water polo, field hockey, roller hockey, handball, volleyball and the Davis Cup in tennis.

It is also worth noting that the Real Madrid football club is officially recognized as the best club in the world of the 20th century.

Armed forces

The new doctrine 1/2004 declares terrorism to be the main enemy of Spain (both external and internal). It is noted that from now on, Spanish troops will be able to take part in international peacekeeping actions directly approved by the UN or, as was the case in Kosovo, enjoying the obvious support of the world community. In addition, participation in hostilities will require permission from the Spanish Parliament.

In the new military doctrine, the role of the General Defense Staff JEMAD, headed by General Felix Sanz, has been increased. At the end of October 2004, he made a statement about the need to “balance” the unequal relations between Spain and the United States, formed after 1953, when Spain and the United States signed a military defense cooperation agreement, under which the United States received the right to use several large military bases in Spain.

In 2001, Spain abolished conscription and switched to a completely professional army.

Spain has no laws prohibiting openly gay and lesbian people from serving in the armed forces. On March 4, 2009, Spanish Defense Minister Carme Chacón (the first woman to hold this post) issued a decree repealing a previous law that prohibited transgender people from serving in the armed forces.

Spanish foreign policy

The preamble of the Spanish Constitution proclaims its readiness to “cooperate in strengthening peaceful relations and cooperation with all countries of the world.” Currently, Spain's foreign policy is mainly based on three directions: Europe (especially the EU), the Ibero-American direction, and the Mediterranean countries.

Today Spain has diplomatic relations with all UN countries. More recently, Spain has relations with Bhutan (since October 2010), South Sudan (after its independence from Sudan in July 2011) and the state of Karibati (since September 2011).

On April 12, 1994, the “Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Spain” was signed. Currently, bilateral relations between the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Spain have an extensive legal framework: the basis for interaction in various areas is formed by more than 50 treaties, agreements, protocols and other documents.

Morocco

Morocco occupies one of the key places in Spanish foreign policy, for which the Moroccan Kingdom is the most important African partner, if only due to its territorial proximity. The main directions of Spanish policy in Morocco are: issues related to the enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, the unresolved problem with Western Sahara, problems of illegal migration, issues of stopping drug smuggling, etc.

Relations between Spain and the Maghreb countries began to develop most actively after the Socialist Party came to power in Spain in 1982.

Under the government of the People's Party, led by Prime Minister J. M. Aznar, who were in power from 1996 to 2004, relations could not be called good and were characterized rather by instability, in particular the conflict around the island of Perejil (Leila) occupies a prominent place. in 2002.

The Socialists, who returned to power in April 2004 under the leadership of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, were determined to improve relations with their neighbors and especially with Morocco. After the meeting between Mohamed VI and Juan Carlos in 2005, relations between the two monarchs improved markedly. The conflict in Western Sahara, which arose quite a long time ago, has always had an adverse impact on relations between the two countries. After the failed quadripartite conference, Morocco authorized the Green March on Western Sahara in 1975 with the goal of "cleansing" Western Sahara from Spain. The result was an agreement between Spain, Mauritania and Morocco to transfer temporary control of the Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania.

An important component of relations between the two countries are close economic ties. In 1995, the Moroccan government decides to put everything on foreign investors, the most important of which are Spain and France.

Peacekeeping missions

The Spanish armed forces, consisting of 3,000 people, took part in 5 peacekeeping missions of the EU, NATO, and the UN. These missions are: International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan; EUFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina; KFOR in Kosovo; FINUL to Lebanon and the UN mission to Darfur (Chad).

Various questions

Transport in Spain

The length of roads is 328,000 km. Car park - more than 19 million cars. 90% of passenger and 79% of cargo transportation is carried out by road. The length of railways is 14,589 km. About 6.5% of all ground transport cargo and 6% of passengers are transported.

About 300 vessels with a total displacement of 1.511 million tons are involved in maritime transport. Vessels flying Spanish flags transport over 30 million tons of foreign trade cargo annually. 24 seaports control almost 93% of all traffic.

Air transport takes the leading place. Of the 42 airports, 34 provide regular flights. 56 million passengers pass through Madrid International Airport every year. The airport in Barcelona serves about 30 million passengers annually.

Education in Spain

Spain has a system of compulsory free secondary education from 6 to 16 years of age. About 70% study in public schools, 96.5% study in state universities.

The largest universities in the country: Autonomous University of Madrid, Complutense (in Madrid), Barcelona Central and Autonomous, Santiago de Compostea, Polytechnic University of Valencia.

Media in Spain

Spain has a well-developed media network. 137 newspapers and about 1000 magazines are published. The most read daily newspapers: Pais, Mundo, Vanguardia, ABC, Periodico, Marka. Magazines for women "Patrones", Labores del HOGAR, Moda.

The leading radio stations are SER, COPE, Radio Nacional de España (RNE). The international department of Spanish National Radio, known as Radio Exterior de España, broadcasts in Spanish and six foreign languages. The Russian service for Spanish foreign broadcasting has been operating (with a short break) since the times of Franco, but is less known than similar broadcasters in Russian from the USA, Germany, and France.

The largest TV channels: TVE (covers the entire country), private studios Telesinko and Antena 3, as well as the 24-hour news channel Canal 24 Horas, broadcasting all over the world. Autonomous communities have their own regional television, broadcasting also in national languages.

Siesta in Spain

Crime in Spain

In recent years, the proportion of immigrants among Spanish offenders has gradually increased. This is due to increased immigration to Spain (including illegal) from African countries, as well as from Latin America. Among the latter, two gangs from the Dominican Republic were especially active: Dominicans Don't Play ("Dominicans don't joke") and Trinitarios ("Trinitarians" - named after the underground organization "La Trinitaria", which fought for the independence of the Dominican Republic from Haiti in 1838 ) .

Real estate market in Spain

The average cost per square meter in Spain for the 1st trimester of 2011 is 1777.6 euros (1793.8 euros - new construction; 1764.8 euros - second-hand). Highest prices (in €/m²): San Sebastian - 3762.3; San Cugat del Valles - 3282.6; Getcho - 3224.3; Barcelona - 3103.5; Pozuelo de Alarcon - 2964.0; Madrid - 2921.0.

The main real estate in Spain are villas, apartments and apartments. At the moment, buying real estate in Spain has become more profitable, since on August 20, 2011, the Spanish government temporarily changed the tax - VAT on the purchase of new housing from 8% to 4%.

Telecommunications in Spain

In astronomy

The asteroid (804) Spain, discovered on March 20, 1915 by Spanish astronomer José Comas Sola at the Fabre Observatory in Barcelona, is named after Spain. It was the first asteroid discovered from Spain.

NATURE

Terrain.

In Spain, the distance from north to south does not exceed 870 km, from east to west - 1000 km, and the length of the coastline is 2100 km (including about 1130 km in the Mediterranean Sea and 970 km in the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay) . From the border with France west to Cape Ortegal, the Cantabrian Mountains stretch along the seashore; there are several fairly large bays in which ports are located. South of Cape Ortegal, spurs of the mountains approach the sea, forming a coast indented by deep bays with steep cliffs and numerous islands. The fishing ports of La Coruña and Vigo are located in this area. In the southwest, from the border with Portugal to the Strait of Gibraltar, the coast is low and swampy in places; the only convenient port here is Cadiz. East of Gibraltar to Cape Palos, the foothills of the Cordillera-Penibetics come close to the Mediterranean Sea; there are no coastal plains. But to the north of Cape Palos, coastal plains are fragmentarily developed, separated by mountain spurs. The main ports in the area are Cartagena, Valencia and Barcelona.

Spain is a massive, elevated plateau of the Meseta, composed predominantly of ancient crystalline rocks combined with alpine mountains formed during the Paleogene and Neogene. Among the rocks that make up the Meseta, Precambrian crystalline schists and gneisses with numerous granite intrusions stand out. During the era of the Hercynian orogeny, the Meseta experienced a general tectonic uplift and then underwent folding processes and disjunctive dislocations. During subsequent denudation, it was leveled to the level of a flat plain, and in the Paleogene and Neogene it was covered with sedimentary rocks. About 1 million years ago, the Meseta was again raised to a level of 600 m and acquired a general slope from northeast to southwest. That is why such large rivers as the Duero, Tagus and Guadiana flow in this direction through the territory of the Meseta to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Meseta occupies approx. 2/3 of the territory of Spain and is bordered by high mountains. In addition, in its central regions there rise the large horst ranges of the Cordillera Central (including the Sierra de Guadarrama with Peñalara, 2430 m, and the Sierra de Gredos with Almanzor, 2592 m). These mountains are separated by the Old and New Castile plateaus, drained respectively by the Duero and Tagus rivers. The plateaus are composed of sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits and are characterized by an extremely flat and monotonous topography. Only in some places there are table remains of an oblong shape - fragments of ancient river terraces.

To the south of New Castile rise the Toledo Mountains (the highest point is Mount Corocho de Rosigaldo, 1447 m), also of horst origin. To the south are the plateaus of Extremadura and La Mancha, which are part of the Meseta. The southernmost edge of the Meseta Sierra Morena rises to heights of about 900 m (the highest point is Mount Estrella, 1299 m). The Sierra Morena drops steeply to the vast Andalusian lowland, drained by the Guadalquivir River. In the Tertiary period, marine transgressions spread in this area and sedimentary rocks were deposited, and in the Quaternary period alluvial strata accumulated, so the soils are characterized by very high fertility. The Guadalquivir River flows into the Gulf of Cadiz; near its mouth is the vast wetland of the Doñana National Park.

In the southeast of Spain stretch the folded mountains of the Cordillera Penibetica with the country's highest peak, Mount Mulacén (3482 m), topped with snowfields and glaciers, which occupy the southernmost position in Western Europe.

The Iberian mountains separate the Meseta from the Aragonese plateau, drained by the Ebro River, and have an arcuate shape in plan. In some places they exceed 2100 m (up to 2313 m in the Sierra del Moncayo). The Ebro River originates in the Cantabrian Mountains, flows to the southeast and cuts through the chain of the Catalan Mountains before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. In some places its bed is at the bottom of deep, almost impassable canyons. The waters of the Ebro are intensively used for irrigation, without which farming on the adjacent plains would be impossible.

The low Catalan Mountains (average heights 900–1200 m, peak – Mount Caro, 1447 m) run for 400 km almost parallel to the Mediterranean coast and actually separate the Aragonese plateau from it. The areas of coastal plains developed in Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia north of Cape Palos to the French border are highly fertile.

From the north, the Aragonese plateau is bordered by the Pyrenees. They stretch for almost 400 km from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bay of Biscay and form a powerful insurmountable barrier between the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Europe. These folded mountains, formed during the Tertiary period, exceed 3000 m in places; the highest peak is Aneto Peak (3404 m). The western continuation of the Pyrenees are the Cantabrian Mountains, which also have a sublatitudinal extension. The highest point is Mount Pena Prieta (2536 m). These mountains were formed as a result of intense folding, broken by faults and severely dissected under the influence of river erosion.

Climate.

In Spain, there are three types of climate: temperate maritime in the northwest and north - with moderate temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year; Mediterranean in the south and the Mediterranean coast - with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers; arid continental climate in the interior of the country - with cool winters and warm, dry summers. Average annual precipitation ranges from more than 1,600 mm on the northwestern and western slopes of the Pyrenees to less than 250 mm on the Aragonese plateau and La Mancha. More than half of Spain receives less than 500 mm of precipitation annually and only approx. 20% – over 1000 mm. Since the Andalusian lowland is exposed to westerly moisture-carrying winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, significantly more precipitation falls there. Thus, in Seville the average annual precipitation slightly exceeds 500 mm. Much of the Meseta has insufficient rainfall to support the growing of major crops, although the northern part of Nueva Castile receives fairly good rainfall and produces high wheat crops. Madrid has an average annual rainfall of 410 mm, and this increases markedly in the upper parts of the mountain slopes in the Meseta.

Temperatures everywhere except the interior of the Meseta are generally moderate. In the northwest, the average temperature in January is 7° C, and in August 21° C; in Murcia on the east coast, 10° and 26° C, respectively. Since the southeast coast is protected from the north winds by the Cordillera-Betica mountains, the climate there is close to African, with very dry and hot summers. This is an area where date palms, bananas and sugar cane are grown. Winters in Meseta are cold, often with severe frosts and even snowstorms. In summer it is hot and dusty: the average temperature in July and August is 27 ° C. In Madrid, the average temperature in January is 4 ° C, and in July 25 ° C. In summer, the hottest weather is in the Andalusian lowland region. In Seville, the average temperature in August is 29°C, but sometimes the daytime temperature rises to 46°C; winters are mild, the average temperature in January is 11° C.

Water resources.

The main rivers of Spain - Tagus, Guadiana, Duero and Ebro - originate in mid-altitude mountains, so glacial and snow feeding plays a minor role for them. But rain nutrition is essential. During heavy rainfalls, the rivers quickly fill with water, there are even floods, and during dry periods the water level drops sharply and the rivers become shallow. The Duero, Tagus and Guadiana are navigable only in their lower reaches. In the middle reaches, rivers often have steep slopes and rapids, and in some places they flow in narrow, deep canyons, which makes it difficult and expensive to use their waters for irrigation. Nevertheless, the waters of the Ebro are widely used for these purposes. Of the rivers in Spain, only the Guadalquivir is navigable over a long distance. Seville, located 100 km above the mouth, is a thriving seaport. The Ebro, Duero, Miño and its tributary the Sile, as well as the Tajo, are used to generate hydroelectric power.

Soils.

In northwestern Spain, brown forest soils are developed on the coastal plains and windward slopes of the mountains. The interior regions of the country - Old and New Castile, the Iberian Mountains and the Aragonese Plateau - are characterized by brown soils; in the driest treeless areas there are thin carbonate gray-brown soils with areas of salt marshes in relief depressions. Gray soils are developed in the arid landscapes of Murcia. They are non-gypsum-bearing and non-saline; when irrigated, they produce high yields of fruit and other crops. There are heavy clay barros soils on flat ancient alluvial plains, which are especially favorable for rice cultivation.

Flora and fauna.

The variety of climatic conditions - from humid in the north to arid in the south - determines the heterogeneity of the flora and vegetation of Spain. In the north there are similarities with Central Europe, and in the south - with Africa. Traces of forest vegetation in Murcia, La Mancha and Granada indicate that in the past a significant part of Spain was afforested, but now forests and woodlands occupy only 30% of the country's area, with only 5% being full-fledged closed tree stands.

Evergreen oak forests grow in the north-west of the country. Mountain forests contain more deciduous oak species, along with beech, ash, birch and chestnut, which is typical of Central Europe. In the interior of Spain, small tracts of dry evergreen forests with a predominance of oak have been preserved in some places ( Quercus rotundifolia, Q. petraea), interspersed with pine forests and shrubs. In the driest areas of New Castile, the Aragonese plateau and Murcia, fragments of semi-deserts (usually on salt marshes) are found.

In those areas of Southern Spain where there is more rainfall, especially along the coast, typical Mediterranean shrub-herbaceous communities of the garrigue and tomillara type are present. Garrigue is characterized by the participation of local species of gorse and cornflowers, while tomillara is characterized by the presence of aromatic Lamiaceae (shrub species of thyme, rosemary, etc.), as well as cistus. A special variety of garrigue consists of scattered thickets of the dwarf fan palm ( Chamaerops humilis), very characteristic of Andalusia, as well as a community dominated by tall alpha grass, or esparto ( Macrochloa tenacissima), is a hardy xerophyte that produces strong fiber.

Central European and African connections are evident in the fauna of Spain. Among European species, two varieties of brown bear (the large Asturian and smaller, black, found in the Pyrenees), lynx, wolf, fox, and forest cat deserve mention. There are deer, hares, squirrels and moles. The imperial eagle is found in Spain and North Africa, and the blue magpie, found on the Iberian Peninsula, has also been found in East Asia. On both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar there are genets, Egyptian mongooses and one species of chameleon.

POPULATION

Ethnogenesis.

The origin of the population of Spain is associated with repeated invasions of different peoples. Initially, the Iberians probably lived there. In the 7th century. BC. Greek colonies were founded on the southeastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. In the middle of the 6th century. The Greeks were driven out by the Carthaginians. In the 6th–5th centuries. BC. the northern and central regions of the peninsula were conquered by the Celts. After the victory in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), the Romans took possession of most of the territory of present-day Spain. Roman rule lasted ca. 600 years. Then the Visigoths reigned. Their state, with its capital in Toledo, existed from the beginning of the 5th century. AD until the invasion of the Moors from North Africa in 711. The Arabs held power for almost 800 years. Jews, numbering 300–500 thousand people, lived in Spain for 1,500 years.

Ethnic and racial differences in Spain did not prevent numerous intermarriages. As a result, many representatives of the second generation of Muslims turned out to be people of mixed blood. After the restoration of Christianity in Spain, decrees were passed against Jews (1492) and against Muslims (1502). These populations had to choose between accepting Christianity and exile. Thousands of people chose baptism and were assimilated into the Spanish ethnic group.

Afro-Semitic and Arabic features are strongly expressed in the appearance of the Spaniards and their culture, which gave rise to the catchphrase “Africa begins in the Pyrenees.” However, many residents of the north of the country inherited Celtic and Visigothic features - fair skin, brown hair and blue eyes. In the southern regions, dark-skinned and dark-eyed brunettes predominate.

Demography.

In 2004, 40.28 million people lived in Spain, and in 1996 - 39.6 million. During the 1970s, the average annual population growth was approx. 1%, but subsequently it decreased due to a decrease in the birth rate and in 2004 amounted to 0.16%. In 2004, the birth rate was 10.11 per 1000 people and the death rate was 9.55, a natural population increase of 0.7%. Life expectancy for men in Spain was 76.03 years in 2004, and for women 82.94 .

Language.

The official language of Spain is Spanish, often called Castilian. This Romance language is based on folk Latin with a significant admixture of vocabulary borrowed from the Moors. Spanish is taught in schools and used as a spoken language by educated residents throughout the country. However, local languages are widely spoken in a number of areas: Basque in the Basque Country and Navarre, Galician in Galicia, Catalan in Catalonia, Valencian in Valencia (the latter is sometimes considered a dialect of Castilian). In total, 35% of the country's population uses local languages and dialects, including more than 5 million Catalans, approx. 3 million Galicians, over 2 million Basques. There is a rich literature in local languages. After the establishment of a totalitarian regime in 1939, all regional languages were banned, and in 1975 they were again legalized.

Religion.

The state religion of Spain is Roman Catholic. About 95% of Spaniards are Catholics. In the mid-1990s, there were 11 archbishoprics and 52 bishoprics in the country. There are a small number of Protestants, 450 thousand Muslims and approx. 15 thousand Judaists.

Urbanization.

After the Civil War, and especially since the early 1950s, cities began to grow rapidly in Spain. During the period 1950–1970, the urban population increased by 2.3% annually, while the rural population decreased by 0.2% annually. The greatest growth was undoubtedly experienced by Madrid, whose population in 1991 exceeded 3 million people. Situated in the center of the country, it is the seat of government, with its huge administrative apparatus. This is the main railway junction. Many new industrial enterprises are located here and gigantic construction is underway. Barcelona, located on the northeast coast, is the second largest city in Spain, with 1,644 thousand inhabitants in 1991. Economically, it is the most dynamic urban center, with developed heavy industry and a large port. Valencia (752.9 thousand inhabitants in 1991), located further south on the Mediterranean coast, is the country's third largest city. It is a major market for citrus fruits, rice and vegetables grown in the surrounding area, one of the most intensive agricultural hotspots in Europe. Seville (683 thousand inhabitants in 1991) is a center of winemaking and olive growing. Guests from all over the world flock to this city to celebrate Holy Week.

In recent years, thousands of Spanish peasants have stopped farming and moved to cities in search of higher wages. At the initiative of the government, large irrigation projects were implemented and funds were allocated for the purchase of modern agricultural machinery to increase agricultural productivity.

POLITICAL SYSTEM

Throughout most of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Spain was a constitutional monarchy. After the abdication of King Alfonso XIII in 1931, the Second Republic was founded, which lasted until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1936. In 1939, it was defeated by the troops of General Francisco Franco, who established a dictatorial regime that lasted until his death in 1975. During the period of the military dictatorship, independent political parties were prohibited parties and trade unions, and there was an official state party, the Spanish Falange, later renamed the National Movement. There were no free elections, and the unicameral parliament, the Cortes, had limited powers.

Public administration.

After 1975, Spain was in a state of transition from authoritarianism to a modern European-style parliamentary monarchy. One component of this political system - the bureaucracy, courts, armed forces, civil guard and rural police - was inherited from the dictatorial regime. The other component includes organizational and ideological remnants of the short-lived Second Republic and reflects demographic changes, economic modernization, and democratic political models of Europe. It is represented by parliamentary and electoral systems, political parties, trade unions and other public organizations and groups.

Apparently, the most important connecting role in the formation of the modern government of Spain was played by the monarchy, destroyed in 1931, when, under pressure from the Republicans, King Alfonso XIII abdicated the throne. The Republican form of government in 1939 was replaced by the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco, which lasted until 1975. Franco was succeeded by the grandson of Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos Bourbon y Bourbon (b. 1938). Franco was confident that the young prince, who had studied at all three military academies in Spain, as well as at the University of Madrid, would continue his policies and preserve the authoritarian system he had created. However, having become the king of Spain in 1975, Juan Carlos embarked on the path of democratic reforms. Juan Carlos, after almost 40 years of ruling the state, decided to abdicate the throne in favor of his son, Prince Felipe of Asturias, in June 2014.

According to the constitution, developed by representatives of the main political parties and approved in a referendum in 1978, Spain is a monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The unity of Spain is constitutionally enshrined, but some regional autonomy is allowed.

The Constitution vests legislative power in a bicameral parliament, the Cortes General. Most of the powers belong to the lower house, the Congress of Deputies (350 members). The bills it adopts must be submitted to the upper house, the Senate (256 members), for consideration, but Congress can override a Senate veto by a majority vote. Members of Parliament and senators are elected for a term of 4 years - according to a majoritarian system, and Congress - according to a proportional system. All citizens of the country over 18 years of age have the right to vote.

The Prime Minister is nominated by the head of state - the king and approved by a majority of parliament members. Typically, the prime minister is the leader of the party with the majority of seats in the Congress of Deputies. To form a government, this party may enter into a coalition with other parties.

The Congress of Deputies can vote no confidence in the government and force it to resign, but deputies must identify the next prime minister in advance. This procedure eliminates frequent changes of government.

Local government.

Long before the establishment of the Franco regime, Spain already had experience of local and regional self-government. Under Franco, these rights were eliminated and the central government exercised power at all levels. After the restoration of democracy, local authorities were given significant powers.

The Spanish Constitution is based on the indivisibility of the state, but at the same time guarantees the right to self-government to administrative units formed on the basis of national, regional and historical criteria. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities, which have their own parliaments and governments and enjoy broad powers in the fields of culture, health, education, and economics. In several autonomous communities (Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia) the use of local languages has been legalized, in particular, television broadcasts are conducted in them. However, the Basques insist on providing more complete autonomy, and these demands are in some cases accompanied by armed clashes with the police and terrorist attacks. The 17 autonomous communities include the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, the remnants of Spanish colonial possessions - the cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the northern coast of Africa - have autonomy status. The autonomous communities are divided into 50 provinces, each governed by its own council. Since 1997, the councils have been subordinate to the governments of the autonomous communities.

Higher municipal officials and deputies of local councils are directly elected. Local council members elect a mayor from among their ranks; Usually the head of the majority party is appointed to this post. Municipal governments do not have the power to collect taxes and are financed by the central government.

Political parties.

The national parties that survived the Franco dictatorship are the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Communist Party of Spain (CPI). Their organizations remained underground and in exile, and many members of these parties were persecuted. The Francoist party Spanish Falange (later the National Movement) ceased to exist with the death of dictator Franco, but some figures from this organization still participate in the political life of the country.

In the last years of Franco's life, Prime Minister Carlos Arias Navarro promised to legalize the activities of political organizations. The first of these was the Union of Democratic Center (UDC), created in 1976 led by Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez. That same year, King Juan Carlos appointed Suarez prime minister. The Suarez government did not want to recognize the Communist Party, but was still forced to pass the Law on the legalization of all political parties in 1977. After this, more than 200 parties were registered (as a result of the 1993 general elections, representatives of only 11 parties or coalitions entered parliament, and the 1996 elections - 15).

After the first elections in 1977, the SDC became the leading party. It was a center-right, middle-class party that included some politicians and officials of the Franco regime. The SDC also won the national elections in 1979, but lost its majority of seats in parliament in the 1982 elections because it could not cope with the rapid rise in unemployment and terrorism. The attempted coup in February 1981 also weakened the position of the SDC.

The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) was founded in 1879 and was a major party during the Second Republic, but was banned under Franco. After 1975 it grew rapidly under the leadership of Felipe González Márquez and became a social democratic party. The PSOE had the second highest number of votes in the 1977 and 1979 elections and won local elections in 1979 in major centers of the country, including Madrid and Barcelona. Having received an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the Cortes, in 1982 the PSOE became the ruling party of Spain. She won elections in 1986 and 1989, but in 1993 she had to enter a coalition with the regional Catalan party Convergence and Union to form a government. The PSOE remained in the minority in the early parliamentary elections in March 1996.

The People's Party (PP; until 1989 – People's Alliance) takes conservative positions. For many years it was led by former Francoist minister Manuel Fraga Iribarne. After the leadership of the PP passed into the hands of Jose Maria Aznar, the authority of this party among young people increased. In 1993, it received 141 (PSOE - 150), and in March 1996 - 156 seats (PSOE - 141) and became the ruling one.

Since the 1993 elections, the United Left (UL) coalition, led by the communists, has taken third place among the parties in Spain. In the 1993 elections, the OL received 18 seats, and in the 1996 elections - 21 seats. The Communist Party of Spain (CPI), created in 1920, remained underground for 52 years and was legalized in 1977. Since the late 1960s, it has pursued policies independent of the USSR. The CPI enjoys significant influence in the trade union confederation Workers' Commissions, the largest in the country.

Regional parties play an important role in Spain. The center-right Catalan party Convergence and Union (CIS) held the majority of seats in the Catalan Regional Assembly in the mid-1990s. In the national parliamentary elections of 1993 and 1996, it gained a significant number of votes and became a coalition partner, first with the PSOE and then with the PP. In the Basque Country, where separatist sentiments have long been evident, several influential parties were formed in the mid-1990s. The largest of these, the conservative Basque Nationalist Party (BNP), seeks autonomy through peaceful means. The Eri Batasuna, or Popular Unity Party, is in alliance with the illegal organization ETA (Basque Fatherland and Freedom), which calls for the creation of an independent Basque state, without denying the need for violent methods of struggle. Regional parties enjoy great influence in Andalusia, Aragon, Galicia and the Canary Islands.

Justice system.

Maintaining law and order is the function of the Ministry of the Interior, which has a paramilitary Civil Guard and police force for this purpose. In addition, there is a municipal police force that controls traffic and maintains local law and order.

In accordance with the constitution, Spain has a system of independent courts. The extraordinary political courts that existed under Franco have been abolished. The jurisdiction of military courts in peacetime extends only to military personnel. A special constitutional court, consisting of 12 judges appointed for 12-year terms, reviews the conformity of regulations with the country's constitution. The highest court is the Supreme Court.

Foreign policy.

During Franco's dictatorship, Spain was isolated until 1950, when UN member countries restored diplomatic relations with Franco's Spain. In 1953, an agreement was concluded to provide the United States with air and naval bases on Spanish territory in exchange for American military and economic assistance. This agreement was updated and its validity was extended in 1963, 1970 and 1982. Since 1955, Spain has been a member of the UN.

After World War II, Spain lost almost all of its colonies in Africa. In 1956 Spanish Morocco was transferred to Morocco, and in 1968 the small Spanish possessions of Rio Muni and Fernando Po became the independent state of Equatorial Guinea. In 1976, the Spanish Sahara was transferred to the temporary administration of Morocco and Mauritania. After this, Spain was left with only the cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the Mediterranean coast of Africa.

After Franco's death, Spain sought to establish closer ties with Western European countries. Since 1982, Spain has been a member of NATO, since 1986 - in the EEC (now the EU), since 1989 - in the European Monetary System (EMS). The Spanish government was one of the most active participants in the Maastricht Treaty (1992), which provided for the creation of a political, economic and monetary union in Europe. Spain also has close ties with Latin American countries. Traditionally, it maintains good relations with Arab states. Relations with Great Britain are complicated due to the unresolved issue of the status of Gibraltar.

In 1992, the Olympic Games were held in Barcelona, and the World Exhibition was held in Seville in connection with the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. From 1993 to 1999, Spanish Foreign Minister Javier Solana headed NATO.

Armed forces.

In 1997, the total number of armed forces was 197.5 thousand people; including 108.8 thousand conscripts. 128.5 thousand people served in the ground forces, 39 thousand in the navy, and 30 thousand in the air force. The paramilitary civil guard numbered 75 thousand people.

Until 2002, military service for a period of 9 months was compulsory for all men. In 1996, plans were made public for a gradual transition to a professional army formed on a contract basis. In December 1997, the full integration of Spain into NATO structures was completed.

ECONOMY

Since the 1950s, Spain has transformed from an agricultural country to an industrial country. In terms of industrial output, it ranks fifth in Europe and eighth in the world. During the second half of the 1980s, Spain had the most dynamic economy in Europe, with average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 4.1% in 1986–1991. The global economic downturn in the 1990s caused a sharp decline in GDP growth to 1.1% in 1992. At the same time, the unemployment problem worsened. The share of unemployed in 1994 reached 22% (the highest figure for EU countries).

In the 1940s, Franco's isolationist policies and Spain's boycott of international trade led to economic policy focusing on agricultural development. However, by the mid-1950s, the emphasis had shifted: Spain was open to foreign investment, the economy was liberalized, and industrial development was encouraged. In the 1960s, the annual GDP growth rate increased to 7.2%, up from 4.5% in 1955–1960. In order to increase national income, direct state control in industry was abolished in 1959, which led to a rapid increase in imports. The increased trade deficit was offset by high income from tourism. However, despite this progress, structural imbalances that hampered economic development persisted. These included outdated farming methods; a large number of industrial enterprises that are not competitive in the world market; significant government support for inefficient heavy industries, including iron and steel and shipbuilding, and dependence on oil imports. In the 1970s, the government sought to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the economy, but the global crisis, which began in 1973 with a quadrupling of world oil prices, hit Spain hard.

The ensuing economic decline coincided with the transition to democracy. The need to maintain political stability took precedence over solving economic problems; as a result, wage growth outpaced the pace of production development, and necessary reforms to restructure the economy were postponed. Inflation and unemployment doubled by 1980. In 1982, with the coming to power of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party under Prime Minister Felipe González Márquez, a course was set for industrial restructuring, investment in infrastructure, modernization of financial and capital markets, privatization of a number of state-owned enterprises and Spain's entry into the EEC (1986).

In the second half of the 1980s, Spain's economic situation improved. The industrial restructuring program was aimed at draining resources and labor from inefficient industries that were in decline (shipbuilding, iron and steel, textiles) and providing investment loans and subsidies to new, more competitive enterprises. By 1987, the planned plan was 3/4 fulfilled: the volume of production in most target industries increased sharply, and approx. 30% of those employed in the least competitive industries (more than 250 thousand people) moved to other industries. Joining the EEC also stimulated economic growth: in the early 1990s, Spain received almost 1/5 of the EEC's regional subsidies.

The economic downturn that hit in the early 1990s was partly due to the balance of payments deficit after 1989. Although tourism revenues reduced the deficit in 1992, especially with the hosting of the Summer Olympics in Barcelona and the World Expo 92 in Seville , this sector of the economy has shown signs of stagnation. Most investments continued to be directed to traditionally privileged areas (Barcelona, Madrid) to the detriment of depressed areas (Asturias). An inflexible labor market continued to hamper efforts to reduce high unemployment.

Economic history.

The Spanish economy began several centuries BC, when peoples of the eastern Mediterranean founded colonies on the Spanish coast to control the trade routes that crossed the Iberian Peninsula. Having defeated its rivals, Rome in the 2nd century. BC. established dominance in this region, which he maintained for more than 600 years. Trade developed between the metropolis and the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans extracted minerals and improved agriculture. The collapse of the Roman Empire and the invasion of barbarian peoples from the north led to the decline of the economy based on colonial trade.

In the 8th century, when most of the Iberian Peninsula was captured by Muslims, the Christian kingdoms in the north returned to the primitive subsistence economy based on wheat cultivation and sheep farming, which was typical of other European countries in the early Middle Ages. In those areas dominated by the Moors, commodity farming flourished, which reached its peak of development in the 10th century. In the 13th–15th centuries. Muslim states on the Iberian Peninsula gradually lost their power.

In the 16th–17th centuries. the political (but not economic) unification of Spain took place, as well as the discovery of America by Columbus. The flood of gold and silver that poured out of the New World provided a brief boom for Spain's economy, followed by a protracted period of inflation and decline that culminated in the financial collapse of 1680. This was partly due to the fact that a large portion of the population was in military service. The rise in prices predetermined the rise in prices of Spanish goods, which led to a reduction in exports, and the trade balance became very unfavorable, as domestic goods were replaced by cheaper imported ones. One of the reasons was a long outbreak of religious intolerance, accompanied by the expulsion of Spanish Jews and Muslims, who made a huge contribution to the country's economy.

In the 18th century Spain began to adopt technological innovations that had become commonplace in Western Europe. The American colonies provided a vast market for the goods of the expanding Spanish manufacturing industry, which was rapidly developing in Catalonia and the Basque Country. The invasion of Napoleon and the loss of the American colonies in the 19th century. plunged Spain into another period of stagnation. In the 20th century Spain entered with a poorly developed industry and an economy largely dominated by foreign capital. It was an agricultural country, famous for olives and olive oil, as well as wines. The industry specialized mainly in the production of textiles and metal processing.

Gross domestic product

(GDP) of Spain in 2002 was estimated at 850.7 billion. dollars, or $21,200 per capita (versus $18,227 in France and $9,191 in Portugal). The share of industry was 31% of GDP, construction and other services 65%, and agriculture 4% (which is comparable to EU countries such as Portugal and the Netherlands).

Busy.

The size of Spain's labor force in 1991 was estimated at 15,382 thousand people. More than 41% of working-age women were working or looking for work.

After 1900, employment in Spain underwent great structural changes. In 1900, agriculture accounted for 2/3 of all employed people, in 1991 – only 1/10. The share of people employed in industry over the same period increased from 16% to 33%. In 1991, 11% of women and only 2% of men worked part-time.

In 1991, 1.3 million people worked in agriculture, fishing, forestry and hunting; in the manufacturing industry - 2.7 million people; in the mining industry – 75 thousand; in construction – 1.3 million, in public utilities – 86 thousand, in service sector enterprises – 6.4 million.

Even during the sharp economic downturn of 1960, the number of registered unemployed did not exceed 1% of the total working population, although the real number of unemployed was probably twice as high, and the number of emigrants was increasing rapidly. However, since 1982, in the context of expanding competitiveness of the economy, the problem of unemployment has worsened. In 1998, there were 3.1 million unemployed in Spain, or 19% of the working population. More than 45% of the unemployed are young people under the age of 25.

Migration processes intensified in the 1950s and early 1960s. For example, in 1951–1960 more than 900 thousand people left Spain. If at the beginning of the 20th century. While the Spaniards emigrated mainly to Latin America, in the middle of the century the main flow of emigration came to the countries of Western Europe, where there was a shortage of workers and wages were high. After 1965 many emigrants returned to Spain.

Agriculture and forestry.

Agriculture has long been an important sector of the Spanish economy. Until the early 1950s, when industry outpaced it in development, agriculture was the main source of state income, and by 1992 its share had dropped to 4%. The share of employment in agriculture continued to fall, from 42% in 1986 to 8% in 1992. Farming, the leading branch of agriculture, specializes in the cultivation of barley and wheat. Since the 1970s, fruit and vegetable production has increased dramatically. In 1992, the volume of fruits and vegetables grown (in weight terms) exceeded the grain harvest. Many fruits and vegetables are produced for export, mainly to EU countries, and Spain receives large profits from trade in these products.

Only 40% of the country's land is cultivated. About 16% of cultivated land is irrigated. Meadows and pastures occupy 13% of the territory, forests and woodlands - 31% (versus 25% in the 1950s). Since forests had been mercilessly cut down in many parts of the country over the centuries, the government implemented a large-scale reforestation program. Among forest crops, cork oak is highly valued; Currently, Spain ranks second in the world (after Portugal) in the production of cork bark. Maritime pine is widely used to produce resin and turpentine.

The development of agriculture in Spain is complicated by a number of serious problems. In many areas, the soils are eroded and infertile, and the climatic conditions are unfavorable for growing crops. Only the northern coastal region of Spain receives sufficient rainfall. In addition, only a small part of the land is irrigated, mainly on the east coast and in the Ebro River basin. Another problem is that too much land is owned by inefficient latifundias (very large estates, mainly in the south of the country) and minifundias (very small farms with plots of less than 20 hectares, mainly in the north and east). In the latifundia Insufficient capital has been invested and they need modernization, while the areas of minifundia are too small for economically efficient farming. Only a few latifundias were mechanized, growing new crops such as sunflowers and introducing modern methods of year-round harvesting in greenhouses, which significantly increased the profitability of farms in provinces such as Almeria and Huelva.

Before the Civil War, the Republican government attempted to implement radical land reform based on the expropriation of large landholdings. However, under Franco, all attention was directed to the technical modernization of agriculture. As a result, land distribution problems remained unresolved; After the nationalist victory in 1939, many large plots of land were returned to their former owners. Significant achievements include the construction of irrigation systems on an area of 2.4 million hectares of cultivated land and the resettlement of large numbers of peasants to irrigated lands. In addition, from 1953 to 1972, a program was implemented to consolidate land holdings with a total area of more than 4 million hectares. According to the third development plan (1972–1975) approx. 12% of all expenses were aimed at introducing progressive methods of agriculture and fisheries. Land reform laws passed in 1971 sanctioned landowners who failed to modernize agriculture on their estates as prescribed by the Ministry of Agriculture and who refused to provide loans to tenant farmers to increase agricultural production or buy out their leaseholds.

Spain holds second place in the world in olive oil production and third place in wine production. Olive tree plantations are found mainly in the latifundia of Andalusia and Nueva Castile, while grapes are grown in New and Old Castile, Andalusia and the eastern regions of the country. Citrus fruits, vegetables and sugar beets are also important crops. The main grain crop, wheat, is grown on the central plateaus of the Meseta using rainfed farming methods.

In the post-war years, great strides were made in animal husbandry. In 1991 in Spain there were 55 million heads of poultry (23.7 million in 1933), 5.1 million heads of cattle (3.6 million in 1933), as well as 16.1 million pigs and 24 .5 million sheep. Most of the livestock is concentrated in the humid northern regions of the country.

Fishing.

Fisheries account for less than 1% of Spain's marketable output, but the industry has expanded rapidly and almost continuously since the 1920s. Fish catch increased from 230 thousand tons in 1927 to 341 thousand tons on average per year in the period 1931–1934; in 1990, the average annual catch reached 1.5 million tons. A significant part of the fishery is carried out off the coast of the Basque Country and Galicia. The most commonly caught fish are sardines, hake, mackerel, anchovies and cod.

20–25% of the total catch is processed annually into canned food. However, the fish canning industry stagnated for some time, and as a result Spain lost markets in Portugal, Japan and other countries. Factors such as a decline in imports of iron sheets for the production of cans, rising prices for olive oil and a decline in sardine catches have hampered the development of the industry.

Industry.

In 1991, the industry accounted for approx. 1/3 of the total output of goods and services. Approximately 2/3 of industrial output was produced by manufacturing, while mining, construction and utilities contributed the remaining third.

Industrial development in the 1930s – early 1960s was under state control. Back in 1941, the Institute of National Industry (INI), a state corporation responsible for the creation of large state-owned enterprises, control of private industry and the implementation of protectionist policies, was created. Since 1959, the economy has become somewhat more open, and private enterprises have been given a leading role in industrial development. The functions of the Institute were limited to the creation of enterprises in the public sector of the economy. As a result, the rate of industrial growth increased, which continued until the early 1970s. After 1974, the inefficient state-owned industrial sector entered a period of deep crisis.

The PSOE government, which came to power in 1982, sought to reorganize the INI, which then employed 7% of industrial workers, including 80% of those employed in shipbuilding and half of those employed in the mining industry. The measures taken included the privatization of many enterprises. After 1992, INI split into two groups: INISA (INI-Limited), which consisted of profitable or potentially profitable state-owned firms and was not financed from the state budget; and INICE, which controlled unprofitable firms (some of which were sold to the private sector or abolished). Other state-owned firms, especially those specializing in steel production and coal mining, became marginally profitable in the 1990s, but since they employed many thousands of people, it was expected that their closure and the removal of government subsidies would be gradual.

Spain's entry into the EEC in 1986 stimulated the influx of foreign investment in industry. This made it possible to modernize many enterprises and transfer most of Spain's industry into the hands of foreign investors and corporations.

Manufacturing industry.

Many manufacturing industries have a clear geographical localization. The historically important textile industry is concentrated in Catalonia, especially Barcelona. The main center of iron and steel industry is the Basque Country with its center in Bilbao. In 1992, 12.3 million tons of steel were produced, which was almost 400% higher than the level of 1963. The Spaniards achieved great success in the automotive industry and the cement industry. In 1992, 1.8 million cars, 382 thousand trucks and 24.6 million tons of cement were produced. Industrial output fell in 1991–1992 as a result of the global recession in all industrial sectors except energy. In the early 1990s, in terms of the number of employees in Spain, the following industries stood out: food and tobacco (16% of employees); metallurgy and mechanical engineering (11%); textile and clothing (10%); production of transport equipment (9%).

Mining industry.

Spain has rich deposits of copper, iron ore, tin and pyrites with high contents of copper, lead and zinc. Spain is one of the EU's largest producers of lead and copper, although production of most metals, including copper, lead, silver, uranium and zinc, has been gradually declining since 1985. The Spanish coal industry has long become an inefficient and unprofitable industry.

Energy.

Spain's dependence on energy imports has gradually increased, and in the 1990s this source provided 80% of its energy consumption. Although several oil discoveries have been made in Spain since the early 1960s (oil was found 65 km north of Burgos in 1964, and near Amposta in the Ebro Delta in the early 1970s), the use of domestic energy sources has been discouraged. In 1992, almost half of the overall balance of electricity production came from local coal and imported oil, 36% from nuclear fuel and 13% from hydropower. Due to the low energy potential of Spain's rivers, the role of hydropower has been greatly reduced (in 1977 it provided 40% of the electricity generated). Thanks to the presence of large reserves of uranium, a plan for the development of nuclear energy was developed. The first nuclear power plant was launched in 1969, but in 1983, for environmental reasons, a ban on the construction of new nuclear power plants was introduced.

Transport and communications.

Spain's internal transport system has a radial structure with a large number of main roads and railway lines converging in Madrid. The total length of the railway network is approx. 22 thousand km, of which 1/4 are electrified (1993). The main lines use broad gauge; local lines, making up 1/6 of the entire network, have a narrow gauge. In the late 1960s and 1970s, Spain's railways were significantly modernized: the rolling stock was updated, the rail bed and track were improved, and sharp turns and descents were leveled. In 1987, the implementation of a 13-year plan for the development of railway communication began. In 1993, thanks to subsidies from the EU, the first high-speed passenger line Madrid - Cordoba - Seville was launched, and then the Cordoba - Malaga branch.

The road network in Spain is 332 thousand km, of which 2/5 are paved. In the last decade, the car fleet has increased sharply. In 1963, there were 529.7 thousand passenger cars and 260 thousand trucks (including tractors) in Spain. By 1991, the corresponding figures reached 12.5 million and 2.5 million cars.

The Spanish merchant fleet in 1990 consisted of 416 ships with a total displacement of 3.1 million gross register tons. The main seaports are Barcelona, Bilbao and Valencia.

Spain has two state-owned airlines, Iberia and Aviaco, as well as a number of small private airlines. Iberia operates flights to Latin America, the USA, Canada, Japan, North Africa and European countries, as well as domestic flights. The busiest airport is Palma Airport on the island of Mallorca. Other major airports are located in Madrid, Barcelona, Las Palmas (on Gran Canaria), Malaga, Seville and Tenerife.

Domestic trade.

Domestic trade accounts for approx. 17% of all goods and services in the country. However, despite the relatively large importance of domestic trade, the movement of goods from producers to consumers remains one of the weakest links in the economy. The government has taken measures such as the construction of supermarkets and wholesale markets, but there is still a sharp imbalance between the very large retail trade network and the narrow wholesale trade system.

International trade.

Imports are dominated by energy resources (mainly oil), machinery and transport equipment, ferrous metals, chemical products and textiles. Exports include cars, tractors, mopeds, machinery and electrical appliances; followed by iron and steel and chemical products, textiles and footwear. Food accounts for less than 1/5 of Spanish exports, with half coming from fruits and vegetables; Fish, olive oil and wine play an important role. The main trading partners are EU countries (especially Germany and France) and the USA.

There is a deficit in Spain's foreign trade (in 1992 – $30 billion). It is partially covered by revenues from tourism. In 1997, when the country was visited by 62 million tourists (in 1959 - only 4 million), these incomes amounted to 10.5% of GDP

The total volume of foreign investment in the Spanish economy in 1991 reached 27.6 billion dollars (their share in industry is especially large).

Banking.

After the reforms, new commercial banks were opened. The Ministry of Finance was able to effectively control the credit system, which was in line with the policy aimed at encouraging investment. The Bank of Spain was transformed into a central bank, which acts as an executive body for the implementation of the state's monetary and credit policies. It has broad powers to inspect and control private banks. To control the credit system, special organizations were created that used such controls as regulation of interest rates, purchase and sale of government securities.

In 1988, the Bank of Spain announced that for the first time since 1978 the government had approved the creation of new banks with public participation. At that time, there were 77 savings banks, which held 43% of all deposits. In 1991 there were approx. 100 private and commercial banks.

The monetary unit of Spain is the euro.

The state budget.

The public sector of the Spanish economy has been largely responsible for the ongoing inflation. At times, a significant budget deficit arises, and then the government takes out large loans to cover it. Total expenses in 1992 amounted to 131.9 billion dollars. It took approx. to cover the national debt. 14% of all expenses, healthcare - approx. 12%, education and public works - 7% each and military expenses - 5%. Revenues were $120.7 billion. Value added tax accounted for 39%, income taxes accounted for 38%, taxes on imported oil accounted for 12%, and corporate income taxes accounted for 10% of total government revenue. In 1997, Spain's public debt amounted to 68.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Customs.

Spaniards spend most of their leisure time outside the home. Friends and relatives often meet in cafes and bars, talking over a cup of coffee, a glass of wine or beer. Many cafes have their own regular customers, and some of them gather people of a certain political orientation. Tertulia, or a party of friends in a cafe is not just a custom, but an element of a way of life. However, the increased popularity of television in Spain has led to a weakening of traditional forms of communication.

Women in Spain are gaining more and more rights. Many of them, including married ones, work, and this is no longer an exception even among the upper classes. Spanish women keep their maiden names when married. In wealthy sections of society, marriages usually take place at a later age. In the mid-1990s, Spanish women had the lowest fertility rate in the world (1.2 children per woman). In the mid-1980s, a birth control law was passed, allowing abortion in certain cases (for example, after rape, incest, and when childbirth is dangerous for the woman's physical or mental condition).

Clothing, food and shelter.

In the past, Spaniards rarely wore shorts, T-shirts and other types of sportswear, but this has changed since the 1960s, when a flood of foreign tourists poured into Spain.

Usually in Spain they have lunch in the middle of the day, and the lunch ends with a siesta - an afternoon nap. They have dinner very late, sometimes at 10–11 pm. After work, Spaniards go out to socialize and eat tapas, pieces of smoked meat, seafood (crabs, lobsters), cheese or stewed vegetables. Spaniards consume more fish per capita than residents of other EU countries. Meat consumption, once a luxury for most families, has increased significantly in recent years. The diet is supplemented by potatoes, beans, chickpeas and bread.

Despite massive construction, there is still a shortage of housing in Spain, especially in large cities. Housing rents increased sharply in the 1980s. Many families live in cramped, overcrowded apartments, and young people often stay with their parents, unable to afford their own home.

Religion in the life of society.

Catholicism has the status of the state religion, and 30% of schoolchildren are educated in Catholic schools. According to the law of 1966, freedom of religion and the right of religious minorities to publicly perform religious rites and maintain religious organizations were introduced. Previously, small Protestant and Jewish communities were prohibited from having their own schools, training clergy, serving in the army and publishing newspapers. Currently, the attitude of many Spaniards towards religion is rather formal. Islam is being revived in Andalusia.

Social Security.

The state, especially through trade unions, provides social security, including subsidies for low-income families and pensions for the elderly, free medical care and unemployment benefits. In 1989, in accordance with European practice, paid maternity leave was extended to 16 weeks.

CULTURE

Literature.

The beginning of Spanish literature in the Castilian language was marked by the great monument of the Spanish heroic epic Song of my Sid (c. 1140) about the exploits of the hero of the Reconquista Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Cid. On the basis of this and other heroic poems in the Early Renaissance, the Spanish romance was formed - the most famous genre of Spanish folk poetry.

At the origins of Spanish poetry stood Gonsalvo de Berceo (c. 1180 - c. 1246), the author of religious and didactic works, and the founder of Spanish prose is considered to be the king of Castile and Leon Alfonso X the Wise (reigned 1252–1284), who left a number of historical chronicles and treatises. In the genre of literary prose, his endeavors were continued by the Infant Juan Manuel (1282–1348), author of a collection of short stories Count Lucanor(1328–1335). The largest poet of the initial period of Castilian literature was Juan Ruiz (1283 - ca. 1350), who created The Book of Good Love(1343). The pinnacle of medieval Spanish poetry was the work of the soulful lyricist Jorge Manrique (c. 1440–1479).

The Early Renaissance (early 16th century) was marked by Italian influence, led by Garcilaso de la Vega (1503–1536), and the flowering of the Spanish chivalric romance. The “Golden Age” of Spanish literature is considered to be the period from the mid-16th to the end of the 17th century, when Lope de Rueda (between 1500–1510 – ca. 1565), Lope de Vega (1562–1635), Pedro Calderon (1600–1681) worked. , Tirso de Molina (1571–1648), Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (1581–1639), Francisco Quevedo (1580–1645), Luis Góngora (1561–1627) and finally Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547–1616), author immortal Don Quixote (1605–1615).

Throughout the 18th and most of the 19th centuries. Spanish literature was in deep decline and was mainly engaged in imitation of French, English and German literary models. Romanticism in Spain is represented by three major figures: the essayist Mariano José de Larra (1809–1837), the poet Gustavo Adolfo Becker (1836–1870) and the prose writer Benito Pérez Galdós (1843–1920), author of numerous historical novels. Leading positions in literature of the 19th century. occupies the so-called Costumbrism - depiction of life and customs with an emphasis on local color. Naturalistic and realistic tendencies appeared in the works of novelists Emilia Pardo Basan (1852–1921) and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (1867–1928).

Spanish literature experienced another boom in the first half of the 20th century. (the so-called “second golden age”). The revival of national literature begins with the writers of the “generation of 1898,” which include Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936), Ramon del Valle Inclan (1869–1936), Pio Baroja (1872–1956), Azorin (1874–1967); Nobel Prize winner (1922) playwright Jacinto Benavente (1866–1954); poets Antonio Machado (1875–1939) and 1956 Nobel Prize winner in Literature Juan Ramon Jimenez (1881–1958). Following them, a brilliant galaxy of so-called poets entered literature. "1927 generation": Pedro Salinas (1892–1951), Jorge Guillen (b. 1893), Vicente Aleixandre (1898–1984), who received the Nobel Prize in 1977, Rafael Alberti (b. 1902), Miguel Hernandez (1910–1942) ) and Federico García Lorca (1898–1936).

The rise to power of the Francoists tragically cut short the development of Spanish literature. The gradual revival of the national literary tradition began in the 1950s and 1960s Camilo José Cela (1916), Nobel Prize laureate for 1989, author of novels Pascual Duarte family (1942), Hive(1943) and others; Anna Maria Matute (1926), Juan Goytisolo (1928), Luis Goytisolo (1935), Miguel Delibes (1920), playwrights Alfonso Sastre (1926) and Antonio Buero Vallejo (1916), poet Blas de Otero (1916–1979), etc. After Franco's death, there was a significant revival of literary life: new prose writers (Jorge Semprun, Carlos Rojas, Juan Marse, Eduardo Mendoza) and poets (Antonio Colinas, Francisco Brines, Carlos Sahagun, Julio Lamasares) entered the literary arena.

Architecture and fine arts.

The Arabs brought a developed culture of ornament to Spanish art and left a number of magnificent architectural monuments in the Moorish style, including the mosque in Cordoba (8th century) and the Alhambra Palace in Granada (13–15th centuries). In the 11th–12th centuries. The Romanesque style in architecture is developing in Spain, a remarkable monument of which is the majestic cathedral in the city of Santiago de Compostela. In the 13th - first half of the 15th century. In Spain, as throughout Western Europe, the Gothic style was formed. Spanish Gothic often borrows Moorish features, as evidenced by the majestic cathedrals in Seville, Burgos and Toledo (one of the largest in Europe). A special artistic phenomenon is the so-called. the Mudejar style, which developed as a result of the fusion of Gothic and later Renaissance elements in architecture with the Moorish heritage.

In the 16th century under the influence of Italian art, a school of mannerism was emerging in Spain: its prominent representatives were the sculptor Alonso Berruguete (1490–1561), the painters Luis de Morales (c. 1508–1586) and the great El Greco (1541–1614). The founders of the art of court portraiture were the famous painters Alonso Sanchez Coelho (c. 1531–1588) and his student Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (1553–1608). In secular architecture of the 16th century. The ornamental “Plateresque” style was established, which was replaced at the end of the century by the cold “Herreresco” style, an example of which is the Escorial monastery-palace near Madrid, built in 1563–1584 as the residence of the Spanish kings.

The “Golden Age” of Spanish painting is called the 17th century, when the great artists Jusepe Ribera (1588–1652), Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1618–1682), Francisco Zurbaran (1598–1664) and Diego de Silva Velazquez (1599–1660) worked. In architecture there was a restrained “Herreresco” style in the second half of the 17th century. gives way to the overly decorative churriguresco style.

Period 18th–19th centuries generally characterized by the decline of Spanish art, locked in imitative classicism, and later in superficial costumbrism. Against this background, the work of Francisco Goya (1746–1828) stands out especially clearly.

The revival of the great Spanish tradition occurs in the first half of the 20th century. New paths in world art were paved by the original architect Antonio Gaudi (1852–1926), who was called the “genius of modernism,” the founder and prominent representative of surrealism in painting, Salvador Dali (1904–1989), one of the founders of cubism, Juan Gris (1887–1921), abstract artist Joan Miró (1893–1983) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), who contributed to the development of several movements of modern art.

Music.

The flourishing of Spanish musical culture, especially in the genre of church music, began in the 16th century. The leading composers of the era were the master of vocal polyphony Cristóbal de Morales (1500–1553) and his student Tomás Luis de Victoria (c. 1548–1611), nicknamed the “Spanish Palestrina,” as well as Antonio de Cabezón (1510–1566), famous for his compositions for harpsichord and organ. In the 19th century After a long era of stagnation, the initiator of the revival of the national musical culture was Felipe Pedrel (1841–1922), the founder of the new Spanish school of composition and the creator of modern Spanish musicology. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Spanish music gains European fame thanks to composers such as Enrique Granados (1867–1916), Isaac Albéniz (1860–1909) and Manuel de Falla (1876–1946). Modern Spain has produced such world-famous opera singers as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras and Montserrat Caballe.

Film art.

The most famous of Spanish film directors, Luis Bunuel (1900–1983), made his first surreal film back in 1928 with Salvador Dali. Andalusian dog. Buñuel was forced to leave Spain after the Civil War and settled in Mexico City, where he created famous films Exterminating Angel (1962),Daytime beauty(1967),The modest charm of the bourgeoisie(1973) and What interferes with the cherished goal(1977). In the post-Franco period, several film directors emerged in Spain who gained fame both at home and abroad. These include Carlos Saura, Pedro Almodóvar ( Woman on the verge of a nervous breakdown, 1988; Kika, 1994) and Fernando Trueva ( Belle Epoque, 1994), which contributed to the consolidation of the world fame of Spanish cinema.

Education.

Schooling is compulsory and free from age 6 to 16, with about a third of students attending private schools. There are more than 40 universities in Spain; the largest are the universities of Madrid and Barcelona. In 1992, 1.2 million students were studying at universities, 96% of them at state universities. In Spain, 4.3% of GDP was spent on education in 1995.

Cultural institutions.

The Prado Museum in Madrid, founded in 1818, has a rich collection of Spanish paintings up to the mid-19th century. Here are masterpieces by such outstanding masters as Velazquez, Goya, Murillo, Ribera and Zurbaran. In addition, the work of prominent Italian and Flemish artists is very fully represented. The collection of the Prado Museum is successfully complemented by the collection of the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, which includes masterpieces of Western painting of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The National Library in Madrid has an excellent collection of books, and the archives of the Royal Council of the Indies in Seville contain valuable documents on the history of the Reconquista and the Spanish colonial empire. The archives of the Royal House of Aragon are located in Barcelona.

The Institute of Spain is dedicated to promoting the development of arts and sciences. Its structure includes the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language, founded in 1713, the Royal Academy of History, the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando and the royal academies of exact, physical and natural sciences, spiritual and political sciences, medicine, law and pharmacology. Activities in the field of culture are carried out by the literary society Athenaeum in Madrid.

Seal.

Several thousand books of approx. are published in Spain every year. 120 daily newspapers with a total circulation of almost 3.3 million copies. The most popular is the independent newspaper Pais, followed by ABC, Vanguardia, Diario 16, Mundo and others.

Recreation and sports.

At night, cafes and bars host Spanish music and dance performances; Andalusian flamenco cantes are often heard. Colorful folk festivals, fairs and religious holidays are held in different parts of the country.

In Spain, bullfighting remains popular. Favorite sport is football. Young people also play pelota, or Basque ball. In the south of the country, cockfights attract large audiences.

STORY

The name "Spain" is of Phoenician origin. The Romans used it in the plural (Hispaniae) to refer to the entire Iberian Peninsula. In Roman times, Spain consisted first of two and then of five provinces. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, they were united under the rule of the Visigoths, and after the invasion of the Moors in 711 AD. There were Christian and Muslim states on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain as a politically integral entity arose after the unification of Castile and Aragon in 1474.

Primitive society.

The oldest traces of human habitation were found at the Lower Paleolithic site in Torralba (Soria Province). They are represented by handaxes of the early Acheulian type along with the skulls of the southern elephant, the bones of the Merk rhinoceros, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Stenon's horse and other heat-loving species of animals. Nearby, in the valley of the Manzanares River near Madrid, more advanced Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) tools were found. Primitive people then probably migrated through Europe and reached the Iberian Peninsula. Here, in the middle of the last glaciation, the Late Paleolithic Solutre culture developed.

At the end of the last glaciation, the Magdalenian culture existed in central and southern France and northern Spain. People hunted reindeer and other cold-tolerant animals. They made cutters, piercings and scrapers from flint and sewed clothing from skins. Madeleine hunters left images of game animals on the walls of the caves: bison, mammoths, rhinoceroses, horses, bears. The designs were made with a sharp stone and painted with mineral paints. Particularly famous are the paintings on the walls of the Altamira cave near Santander. The main finds of tools of the Magdalenian culture are confined to the northern regions of the Iberian Peninsula, and only a few finds were made in the south. The heyday of the Magdalenian culture, apparently, must be dated from 15 thousand to 12 thousand years ago.

Caves in eastern Spain contain original depictions of people hunting, reminiscent of cave paintings in the central Sahara. The age of these monuments is difficult to determine. It is possible that they were created over a long period.

As the Mesolithic climate improved, cold-tolerant animals became extinct and the types of stone tools changed. The Azilian culture, which replaced the Magdalenian, was characterized by microlithic stone tools and painted or engraved pebbles with designs in the form of stripes, crosses, zigzags, lattices, stars, and sometimes resembling stylized figurines of people or animals. On the northern coast of Spain, in Asturias, groups of gatherers appeared somewhat later, feeding mainly on shellfish. This determined the nature of their tools, which were intended for separating shells from the walls of coastal cliffs. This culture was called Asturian.

The development of basket weaving, agriculture, cattle breeding, the construction of dwellings and other forms of social organization, and the consolidation of traditions in the form of laws are associated with the Neolithic era. In Spain, Neolithic axes and pottery first appeared on the southeast coast near kitchen middens dating back to around 2500 BC. Perhaps the oldest settlements of Almeria with defensive stone ramparts and ditches filled with water date back to this time. Important occupations of the population were agriculture, hunting and fishing.

In the 3rd millennium BC. There were already numerous fortified urban settlements surrounded by fields where crops were grown. Large rectangular or trapezoidal stone chambers were used as tombs.

In the 2nd millennium BC. Thanks to the discovery of bronze, metal tools appeared. At this time, the fertile valley of the Guadalquivir River was settled, and the center of culture moved westward, becoming the basis of the Tartessian civilization, perhaps comparable to the rich region of "Tarshish" mentioned in the Bible, which was known to the Phoenicians. This culture also spread north to the Ebro River valley, where it laid the foundation for the Greco-Iberian civilization. Since then, this territory has been densely populated by tribal communities who were engaged in agriculture, mining, making pottery and various metal tools.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. waves of invasions of Indo-European peoples, mainly Celts, swept through the Pyrenees. The first migration did not go beyond Catalonia, but subsequent ones reached Castile. Most of the new arrivals preferred to wage war and herd livestock rather than engage in farming.

The migrants completely mixed with the local population in the area between the upper reaches of the Duero and Tagus rivers, where archaeologists have discovered traces of more than 50 settlements. This entire area was named Celtiberia. In the event of an enemy attack, the Union of Celtiberian Tribes could field up to 20 thousand soldiers. He put up strong resistance to the Romans in the defense of their capital Numantia, but the Romans still managed to win.

Carthaginians.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Skilled sailors, the Phoenicians reached the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula and founded the trading center of Gadir (Cadiz) there, and the Greeks settled on the east coast. After 680 BC Carthage became the main center of Phoenician civilization, and the Carthaginians established a trade monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar. Iberian cities were founded on the east coast, reminiscent of the Greek city-states.

The Carthaginians traded with the Tartessian federation in the Guadalquivir River valley, but made virtually no attempts to conquer it until they were defeated by Rome in the 1st Punic War (264–241 BC). Then the Carthaginian military leader Hamilcar created the Punic Empire and moved the capital to Cartagena (New Carthage). His son Hannibal in 220 BC. attacked Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome, and in the ensuing war the Carthaginians invaded Italy, but in 209 the Romans captured Cartagena, passed through the territory of all Andalusia and in 206 forced the surrender of Gadir.

Roman period.

During the war, the Romans established complete control over the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula (the so-called Near Spain), where they forged an alliance with the Greeks, giving them power over Carthaginian Andalusia and the lesser-known interior regions of the peninsula (the so-called Further Spain). Having invaded the Ebro River valley, the Romans in 182 BC. defeated the Celtiberian tribes. In 139 BC The Lusitanians and Celts, who predominated in the population of the Tagus River valley, were conquered, Roman troops entered the territory of Portugal and placed their garrisons in Galicia. The lands of the Cantabri and other tribes of the northern coast were conquered between 29 and 19 BC.

By the 1st century. AD Andalusia experienced strong Roman influence and local languages were forgotten. The Romans built a network of roads in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula, and local tribes that resisted were resettled in remote areas. The southern part of Spain turned out to be the most Romanized of all the provinces. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius the Great, the writers Martial, Quintilian, Seneca and the poet Lucan. In such large centers of Roman Spain as Tarraco (Tarragona), Italica (near Seville) and Emerita (Merida), monuments, arenas, theaters and hippodromes were built. Bridges and aqueducts were built, and trade in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods was active through seaports (especially in Andalusia).

Christianity entered Spain through Andalusia in the 2nd century. AD, and by the 3rd century. Christian communities already existed in the main cities. Information has reached us about the severe persecution of early Christians, and the documents of the council held in Iliberis near Granada ca. 306, indicate that the Christian church had a good organizational structure even before the baptism of the Roman Emperor Constantine in 312.

MIDDLE AGES

Spanish historiography has developed a unique idea of the Spanish Middle Ages. Since the time of the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, a tradition has been established to consider the barbarian invasions and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. the starting point of the transition from the ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself were considered as a gradual approach to the Renaissance (15–16 centuries), when interest in the culture of the ancient world reawakened. When studying the history of Spain, particular importance was attached not only to the crusades against Muslims (Reconquista), which lasted several centuries, but also to the very fact of the long coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism on the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the Muslim invasion in 711 and end with the Christian capture of the last stronghold of Islam, the Emirate of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events took place).

Visigothic period.

After the Visigoths invaded Italy in 410, the Romans used them to restore order in Spain. In 468, their king Eurich settled his followers in northern Spain. In 475 he even promulgated the earliest written code of laws (the Eurich Code) in the states formed by the Germanic tribes. In 477, the Roman Emperor Zeno officially recognized the transition of all of Spain to the rule of Eurich.

The Visigoths adopted Arianism, which was condemned as a heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and created a caste of aristocrats. Their cruel treatment of the local population, mainly Catholics in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, caused the intervention of the Byzantine troops of the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained in the southeastern regions of Spain until the 7th century.

King Atanagild (r. 554–567) made Toledo his capital and recaptured Seville from the Byzantines. His successor, Leovigild (568–586), occupied Cordoba in 572, reformed the laws in favor of the Catholics of the south and tried to replace the elective Visigothic monarchy with a hereditary one. King Recared (586–601) announced his renunciation of Arianism and his conversion to Catholicism and convened a council at which he persuaded the Arian bishops to follow his example and recognize Catholicism as the state religion. After his death, an Arian reaction set in, but with the accession of Sisebutus (612–621) to the throne, Catholicism regained the status of the state religion.

Svintila (621–631), the first Visigothic king to rule over all of Spain, was enthroned by Bishop Isidore of Seville. Under him, the city of Toledo became the seat of the Catholic Church. Reccesvintus (653–672) promulgated the famous code of laws Liber Judiciorum around 654. This outstanding document of the Visigothic period abolished the existing legal differences between the Visigoths and local peoples. After the death of Rekkesvint, the struggle between claimants to the throne intensified under the conditions of an elective monarchy. At the same time, the power of the king noticeably weakened, and continuous palace conspiracies and rebellions did not stop until the collapse of the Visigothic state in 711.

Arab domination and the beginning of the Reconquista.

The victory of the Arabs in the Battle of the Guadalete River in Southern Spain on July 19, 711 and the death of the last Visigoth king Roderic two years later in the Battle of Segoyuela sealed the fate of the Visigothic kingdom. The Arabs began to call the lands they captured Al-Andaluz. Until 756 they were governed by a governor who was formally subordinate to the Damascus caliph. In the same year, Abdarrahman I founded an independent emirate, and in 929 Abdarrahman III assumed the title of caliph. This caliphate, centered in Cordoba, lasted until the beginning of the 11th century. After 1031, the Cordoba Caliphate broke up into many small states (emirates).

To a certain extent, the unity of the caliphate has always been illusory. The vast distances and difficulties of communication were aggravated by racial and tribal conflicts. Extremely hostile relations developed between the politically dominant Arab minority and the Berbers who made up the majority of the Muslim population. This antagonism was further exacerbated by the fact that the best lands went to the Arabs. The situation was aggravated by the presence of layers of Muladi and Mozarabs - the local population who, to one degree or another, experienced Muslim influence.

Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigothic leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga.

Gradually moving towards the Duero River, Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”) was formed; It is appropriate to note that back at the end of the 8th century. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (locks). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political entities arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of Leon. The County of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the Kingdom of León and thereby acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims.

In the more eastern regions there were Christian states - the kingdom of Navarre, the County of Aragon, which became a kingdom in 1035, and various counties associated with the kingdom of the Franks. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was occupied by the County of Barcelona. Then the County of Catalonia arose, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and conducted a lively maritime trade, in particular in slaves. In 1137 Catalonia joined the Kingdom of Aragon. This is a state in the 13th century. significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), also annexing the Balearic Islands.

In 1085 Alfonso VI, king of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from the Duero River to the Tagus River. In 1094, the Castilian national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as the Cid, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the crusaders, but rather a consequence of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of the taifa (emirates in the territory of the Cordoba Caliphate). During the Reconquista, it happened that Christians united with Muslim rulers or, having received a large bribe (parias) from the latter, were hired to protect them from the crusaders.

In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born approx. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079, King Alfonso VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, soon after this he did not get along with Alphonse and was expelled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic “seid”, i.e. “lord”). The Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moqtadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Cid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099.

Castilian epic Song of my Sid, written ca. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably conveys many historical events. Song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although the Cid fights the Muslims, in this epic it is not they who are portrayed as the villains, but the Christian princes of Carrion, the courtiers of Alfonso VI, while the Cid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.

Completion of the Reconquista.

Muslim emirs were faced with a choice: either constantly pay tribute to Christians, or turn to co-religionists in North Africa for help. Eventually, the Emir of Seville, al-Mu'tamid, turned to the Almoravids for help, who had created a powerful state in North Africa. Alfonso VI managed to hold Toledo, but his army was defeated at Salac (1086); and in 1102, three years after the death of the Cid, Valencia also fell.

The Almoravids removed the Taif rulers from power and at first were able to unite Al-Andaluz. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. they were supplanted by the Almohads - the Moors from the Moroccan Atlas. After the Almohads suffered a heavy defeat from the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was shaken.

By this time, the mentality of the crusaders had formed, as evidenced by the life of Alfonso I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first crusade were still fresh, most of the river valley was recaptured from the Moors. Ebro, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities as Zaragoza (1118), Tarazona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of going to Jerusalem, he lived to see the spiritual-knightly order of the Templars established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other areas of Spain. These powerful orders provided great assistance in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing economy in a number of border areas.

Throughout the 13th century. Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (reigned 1213–1276) conquered the Balearic Islands and, in 1238, Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The Reconquista owed its successes not only to the military actions of Christians. A major role was also played by the willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and grant them the right to live in Christian states, preserving their faith, language and customs. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims; the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudejars (Muslims who were allowed to remain). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

Late Middle Ages.

In the 14th–15th centuries. Spain was torn apart by internal conflicts and civil wars. From 1350 to 1389 there was a long struggle for power in the kingdom of Castile. It began with the confrontation between Pedro the Cruel (ruled from 1350 to 1369) and the alliance of nobles led by his illegitimate half-brother Enrique of Trastamara. Both sides sought foreign support, particularly from France and England, who were embroiled in the Hundred Years' War.

In 1365, Enrique of Trastamara, expelled from the country, with the support of French and English mercenaries, captured Castile and the following year proclaimed himself King Enrique II. Pedro fled to Bayonne (France) and, having received help from the British, regained the country, defeating Enrique's troops at the Battle of Najera (1367). After this, the French king Charles V helped Enrique regain the throne. Pedro's troops were defeated on the plains of Montel in 1369, and he himself died in single combat with his half-brother.

But the threat to the existence of the Trastamara dynasty did not disappear. In 1371, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, married Pedro's eldest daughter and began to lay claim to the Castilian throne. Portugal was involved in the dispute. The heir to the throne married Juan I of Castile (r. 1379–1390). Juan's subsequent invasion of Portugal ended in a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385). Lancaster's campaign against Castile in 1386 was unsuccessful. The Castilians subsequently bought off his claim to the throne, and both parties agreed to a marriage between Catharine of Lancaster, daughter of Gaunt, and Juan I's son, the future Castilian king Enrique III (r. 1390–1406).

After the death of Enrique III, the throne was inherited by his minor son Juan II, but in 1406–1412 the state was actually ruled by Ferdinand, the younger brother of Enrique III, who was appointed co-regent. In addition, Ferdinand managed to defend his rights to the throne in Aragon after the death of the childless Martin I there in 1395; he ruled there from 1412–1416, constantly interfering in Castile affairs and pursuing the interests of his family. His son Alfonso V of Aragon (r. 1416–1458), who also inherited the Sicilian throne, was primarily interested in affairs in Italy. The second son, Juan II, was absorbed in affairs in Castile, although in 1425 he became king of Navarre, and after the death of his brother in 1458 he inherited the throne in Sicily and Aragon. The third son, Enrique, became Master of the Order of Santiago.

In Castile, these “princes from Aragon” were opposed by Alvaro de Luna, an influential favorite of Juan II. The Aragonese party was defeated at the decisive Battle of Olmedo in 1445, but Luna himself fell out of favor and was executed in 1453. The reign of the next Castilian king, Enrique IV (1454–1474), led to anarchy. Enrique, who had no children from his first marriage, divorced and entered into a second marriage. For six years, the queen remained barren, for which rumor blamed her husband, who received the nickname “Powerless.” When the queen gave birth to a daughter, named Juana, rumors spread among the common people and among the nobility that her father was not Enrique, but his favorite Beltran de la Cueva. Therefore, Juana received the contemptuous nickname “Beltraneja” (Beltran’s offspring). Under pressure from the opposition-minded nobility, the king signed a declaration in which he recognized his brother Alphonse as heir to the throne, but declared this declaration invalid. Then representatives of the nobility gathered in Avila (1465), deposed Enrique and proclaimed Alfonso king. Many cities sided with Enrique, and a civil war began, which continued after Alphonse’s sudden death in 1468. As a condition for ending the rebellion, the nobility demanded that Enrique appoint his half-sister Isabella as heir to the throne. Enrique agreed to this. In 1469, Isabella married the Infante Fernando of Aragon (who will go down in history under the name of the Spanish King Ferdinand). After the death of Enrique IV in 1474, Isabella was declared Queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, after the death of his father Juan II in 1479, took the throne of Aragon. This is how the unification of the largest kingdoms of Spain took place. In 1492, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada, fell. That same year, Columbus, with the support of Isabella, made his first expedition to the New World. In 1512, the Kingdom of Navarre was included in Castile.

Aragon's Mediterranean acquisitions had important consequences for all of Spain. First, the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia came under the control of Aragon, then Sicily. During the reign of Alfonso V (1416–1458), Southern Italy was conquered. To administer newly acquired lands, kings appointed governors or procuradores. Back at the end of the 14th century. such governors (or viceroys) appeared in Sardinia, Sicily and Majorca. A similar management structure was reproduced in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia due to the fact that Alfonso V was away for a long time in Italy.

The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited by the Cortes (parliaments). Unlike Castile, where the Cortes were relatively weak, in Aragon it was necessary to obtain the consent of the Cortes to make decisions on all important bills and financial issues. Between meetings of the Cortes, royal officials were supervised by standing committees. To supervise the activities of the Cortes at the end of the 13th century. city delegations were created. In 1359, a General Deputation was formed in Catalonia, whose main powers were limited to collecting taxes and spending funds. Similar institutions were created in Aragon (1412) and Valencia (1419).

The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented and defended the interests of the wealthy sections of the population in cities and rural areas. If in Castile the Cortes were an obedient instrument of the absolute monarchy, especially during the reign of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia, which was part of it, a different concept of power was implemented. She proceeded from the fact that political power is initially established by free people through the conclusion of an agreement between those in power and the people, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the royal authority is considered a manifestation of tyranny.

Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the so-called uprisings. remens (serfs) in the 15th century. The protests in Catalonia were directed against the tightening of duties and the enslavement of peasants, especially intensified in the mid-15th century. and became the reason for the civil war of 1462–1472 between the Catalan General Deputation, which supported the landowners, and the monarchy, which stood up for the peasants. In 1455, Alfonso V abolished some feudal duties, but only after the next upsurge of the peasant movement, Ferdinand V signed the so-called in the monastery of Guadalupe (Extremadura) in 1486. "Guadalupe Maxim" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most severe feudal duties.

The situation of the Jews.

In the 12th–13th centuries. Christians were tolerant of Jewish and Islamic culture. But by the end of the 13th century. and throughout the 14th century. their peaceful coexistence was disrupted. The growing tide of anti-Semitism reached its peak during the massacre of Jews in 1391.

Although in the 13th century. Jews made up less than 2% of the population of Spain; they played an important role in the material and spiritual life of society. Nevertheless, Jews lived separately from the Christian population, in their own communities with synagogues and kosher shops. Segregation was facilitated by Christian authorities who ordered the allocation of special quarters - alhama - to Jews in cities. For example, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera, the Jewish quarter was separated by a wall with a gate.

Jewish communities were given considerable independence in managing their own affairs. Among the Jews, as well as among the Christian townspeople, wealthy families gradually emerged and acquired great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scholars made great contributions to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to their excellent knowledge of foreign languages, they carried out diplomatic missions for both Christians and Muslims. Jews played a key role in spreading the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists to Spain and other Western European countries.

Nevertheless, at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Jews were subjected to severe persecution. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity, becoming conversos. However, conversos often remained living in urban Jewish communities and continued to engage in traditional Jewish activities. The situation was complicated by the fact that many conversos, having become rich, penetrated the oligarchy of cities such as Burgos, Toledo, Seville and Cordoba, and also occupied important positions in the royal administration.

In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established, headed by Tomás de Torquemada. First of all, she drew attention to Jews and Muslims who accepted the Christian faith. They were tortured to “confess” to heresy, after which they were usually executed by burning. In 1492, all unbaptized Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200 thousand people emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, and the Balkans. Most Muslims converted to Christianity under threat of expulsion.

NEW AND CONTEMPORARY HISTORY

Thanks to Columbus's voyage in 1492 and the discovery of the New World, the foundation of the Spanish colonial empire was laid. Since Portugal also laid claim to overseas possessions, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded in 1494 on the division between Spain and Portugal. In subsequent years, the scope of the Spanish Empire was significantly expanded. France returned the border provinces of Catalonia to Ferdinand, and Aragon firmly held its position in Sardinia, Sicily and southern Italy.

In 1496, Isabella arranged the marriage of her son and daughter with the children of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. After the death of Isabella's son, the right to inherit the throne passed to her daughter Juana, the wife of the emperor's heir, Philip. When Juana showed signs of insanity, Isabella wanted to make Ferdinand regent of Castile, but after Isabella’s death in 1504, Juana and Philip reigned on the throne, and Ferdinand was forced to retire to Aragon. After Philip's death in 1506, Ferdinand became regent for Juana, whose illness had progressed. Under him, Navarre was annexed to Castile. Ferdinand died in 1516 and was succeeded by his grandson Charles, son of Juana and Philip.

Spain is a world power.

Decline of Spanish power.

External and internal conflicts.

Under the weak-minded Charles IV (1788–1808), Spain was unable to solve the complex problems that arose in connection with the French Revolution. Although Spain in 1793 joined other European powers at war with France, two years later it was forced to make peace and has since found itself in the French sphere of influence. Napoleon used Spain as a springboard in the fight against England and in implementing plans to capture Portugal. However, seeing that the Spanish king was reluctant to obey his orders, Napoleon forced him to abdicate in 1808 and transferred the crown of Spain to his brother Joseph. Joseph's reign was short-lived. Napoleon's occupation of Spain and his attempt to impose a monarch on it sparked a rebellion. As a result of the joint actions of the Spanish army, partisan detachments and British troops under the command of Arthur Wellesley, who later became the Duke of Wellington, the French army was defeated and withdrawn from the Iberian Peninsula in 1813.

After Napoleon's deposition, Charles's son, Ferdinand VII (1814–1833), was recognized as king of Spain. It seemed to the Spaniards that a new era was beginning in the life of the country. However, Ferdinand VII was resolutely opposed to any political change. As early as 1812, Spanish leaders opposed to King Joseph developed a liberal, although not entirely practical, constitution. Ferdinand approved of it until his return to Spain, but when he received the crown, he broke his promise and began to fight supporters of liberal reforms. An uprising broke out in 1820. In March 1820, the king was forced to recognize the constitution of 1812. The liberal reforms that began in the country greatly worried European monarchs. In April 1823, France, with the approval of the Holy Alliance, began a military intervention in Spain. By October 1823, the constitutional government, unable to organize the country's defense, capitulated, and King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.

From 1833 to 1874 the country was in a state of instability, experiencing a series of social, economic and political upheavals. After the death of King Ferdinand in 1833, the right to the throne of his daughter Isabella II was disputed by her uncle Carlos, who provoked the so-called. Carlist wars. Constitutional rule was restored in 1834, and in 1837 a new constitution was adopted, limiting the power of the monarch to the bicameral Cortes. The revolutionary events of 1854–1856 ended with the dispersal of the Cortes and the abolition of liberal laws. The next upsurge of the revolutionary movement, which began in 1868 with an uprising in the navy, forced Queen Isabella II to flee the country. The Constitution of 1869 declared Spain a hereditary monarchy, after which the crown was offered to Amadeus of Savoy, son of the Italian king Victor Emmanuel II. However, having become King Amadeus I, he soon considered his position extremely unstable and abdicated the throne in 1873. The Cortes proclaimed Spain a republic. The experience of a short republican rule in 1873–1874 convinced the military that only the restoration of the monarchy could put an end to internal strife. Based on these considerations, General Martinez Campos carried out a coup d'etat on December 29, 1874 and installed Isabella's son, King Alfonso XII (1874–1885), on the throne.

The monarchist constitution of 1876 introduced a new system of limited parliamentary power, which provided guarantees of political stability and representation mainly of the middle and upper classes. Alfonso XII died in 1885. His son, born after his death, became King Alfonso XIII (1902–1931). But until he came of age (1902), the queen remained regent.

In economically backward Spain, the positions of anarchism were strong. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was created in the country, but for a long time it remained small and uninfluential. Discontent also increased among representatives of the middle class.

Spain lost its last overseas possessions as a result of defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898. This defeat revealed the complete military and political decline of Spain.

The end of the monarchy.

In 1890, universal male suffrage was introduced. Thus, the ground was prepared for the formation of numerous new political parties, which pushed aside the Liberal and Conservative parties. When the young king Alfonso XIII, in order to achieve agreement between the parties, began to interfere in political affairs in order to be accused of personal ambitions and dictatorship. The Catholic Church still had great influence, but it also increasingly became the target of attacks from anti-clericals from the lower and middle strata of society.

To limit the power of the king, the church and the traditional political oligarchy, reformers demanded amendments to the constitution. Inflation during World War I and economic decline in the postwar years exacerbated social problems. The anarcho-syndicalists, who gained a foothold in the working class environment of Catalonia, provoked a four-year strike movement in industry (1919–1923), accompanied by massive bloodshed. Back in 1912, Spain established a limited protectorate over Northern Morocco, but an attempt to conquer this territory led to the defeat of the Spanish army at Anwal (1921).

In an effort to soften the political situation, General Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship in 1923. Resistance to the dictatorship increased in the late 1920s, and in 1930 Primo de Rivera was forced to resign. Alfonso XIII did not dare to immediately return to the parliamentary form of government and was accused of compromising with the dictatorship. In the municipal elections in April 1931, the Republicans won a decisive victory in all major cities. Even moderates and conservatives refused to support the monarchy, and on April 14, 1931, Alfonso XIII, without abdicating the throne, left the country.

Second Republic

was solemnly proclaimed by the Provisional Government, consisting of left-wing republicans, representatives of the middle class opposed to the Catholic Church and representatives of the growing socialist movement, who intended to prepare the way for a peaceful transition to a “socialist republic”. Numerous social reforms were implemented and Catalonia gained autonomy. However, in the elections in 1933, the Republican-Socialist coalition was defeated due to the opposition of moderates and Catholics. The coalition of right-wing forces that came to power during 1934 negated the results of the reforms. Socialists, anarchists and communists rose up in the mining regions of Asturias, which was brutally suppressed by the army under the command of General Francisco Franco.

In the elections in February 1936, the right bloc of Catholics and conservatives was opposed by the left Popular Front, which represented the entire spectrum of leftist forces, from Republicans to communists and anarcho-syndicalists. The Popular Front, having received a majority of votes of 1%, took power into its own hands and continued the reforms begun earlier.

Civil War.

Concerned about the communist threat, the right began to prepare for war. General Emilio Mola and other military leaders, including Franco, formed an anti-government plot. The fascist party, the Spanish Falange, founded in 1933, used its terrorist units to provoke mass unrest, which could serve as a pretext for the establishment of an authoritarian regime. The left's response contributed to the spiral of violence. The assassination of monarchist leader Jose Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936 served as a suitable occasion for the conspirators to speak out.

The revolt was successful in the provincial capitals of Leon and Old Castile, as well as in cities such as Burgos, Salamanca and Avila, but was crushed by workers in Madrid, Barcelona and the industrial centers of the North. In the major cities of the South - Cadiz, Seville and Granada - the resistance was drowned in blood. The rebels took control of approximately a third of Spain's territory: Galicia, Leon, Old Castile, Aragon, part of Extremadura and the Andalusian Triangle from Huelva to Seville and Cordoba.

The rebels encountered unexpected difficulties. The troops sent by General Mola against Madrid were stopped by the workers' militia in the Sierra de Guadarrama mountains north of the capital. The rebels' strongest trump card, the African army under the command of General Franco, was blocked in Morocco by Republican military courts, the crews of which rebelled against the officers. The rebels had to turn to Hitler and Mussolini for help, who provided aviation to transport Franco's troops from Morocco to Seville. The rebellion developed into a civil war. The Republic, on the contrary, was deprived of support from democratic states. Faced with the threat of internal political confrontation under pressure from Britain, which feared provoking a world war, French Prime Minister Leon Blum abandoned his previous promises to help the Republicans, and they were forced to turn to the USSR for help.

Having received reinforcements, the Nationalist rebels launched two military campaigns that dramatically improved their position. Mola sent troops into the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, cutting it off from France. Meanwhile, Franco's African army quickly advanced north towards Madrid, leaving behind bloody trails, as, for example, in Badajoz, where 2 thousand prisoners were shot. By August 10, both previously disparate rebel factions united. They significantly strengthened their positions in August-September. General José Enrique Varela established communications between rebel factions in Seville, Cordoba, Granada and Cadiz. The Republicans did not have such successes. The rebel garrison of Toledo was still under siege in the Alcazar fortress, and anarchist militia troops from Barcelona spent 18 months trying in vain to retake Zaragoza, which quickly surrendered to the rebels.

On September 21, at an airfield near Salamanca, leading rebel generals met to elect a commander in chief. The choice fell on General Franco, who on the same day transferred troops from the outskirts of Madrid to the southwest to Toledo to liberate the Alcazar fortress. Although he irrevocably lost the chance to capture the capital before it could prepare for defense, he was able to consolidate his power with an impressive victory. In addition, by prolonging the war, he allowed time for political purges in the territory he captured. On September 28, Franco was confirmed as the head of the nationalist state and immediately established a regime of sole power in his zone of control. On the contrary, the Republic experienced constant difficulties due to strong divisions between the bloc of communists and moderate socialists, who sought to strengthen the defense, and the anarchists, Trotskyists and left-wing socialists, who called for social revolution.

Defense of Madrid.

On October 7, the African army resumed its attack on Madrid, which was overcrowded with refugees and suffering from food shortages. Franco's delay raised the heroic spirit of the defenders of the capital and made it possible for the Republicans to receive weapons from the USSR and reinforcements in the form of volunteer international brigades. By November 6, 1936, Franco's troops approached the outskirts of Madrid. On the same day, the Republican government moved from Madrid to Valencia, leaving troops under the command of General José Miaja in the capital. He was supported by the Defense Administration, which was dominated by communists. Miaja rallied the population, while his chief of staff, Colonel Vicente Rojo, organized urban defense units. By the end of November, Franco, despite the help of first-class German units of the Condor Legion, admitted the failure of his offensive. The besieged city held out for another two and a half years.

Then Franco changed tactics and made a number of attempts to encircle the capital. In the battles of Boadilla (December 1936), Jarama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937), at the cost of huge losses, the Republicans stopped his troops. But even after the defeat at Guadalajara, where several regular divisions of the Italian army were defeated, the rebels retained the initiative. In the spring and summer of 1937 they easily captured all of northern Spain. In March, Mola led 40,000 troops in an attack on the Basque Country, supported by experienced terror and bombing specialists from the Condor Legion. The most monstrous action was the destruction of Guernica on April 26, 1937. This barbaric bombardment broke Basque morale and destroyed the defenses of the Basque capital Bilbao, which capitulated on 19 June. After this, the Francoist army, reinforced by Italian soldiers, captured Santander on August 26. Asturias was occupied during September-October, which placed the industry of the North at the service of the rebels.

Vicente Rojo tried to stop the massive Franco offensive with a series of counterattacks. On July 6, in Brunet, west of Madrid, 50 thousand Republican soldiers broke through the enemy front line, but the Nationalists managed to plug the gap. At the cost of incredible efforts, the Republicans delayed the final breakthrough in the north. Later, in August 1937, Rojo launched a bold plan to encircle Zaragoza. In mid-September, the Republicans launched an offensive in Belchite. As in Brunet, at first they had an advantage, and then did not have enough strength to deliver a decisive blow. In December 1937, Rojo launched a pre-emptive strike on Teruel, hoping to distract Franco's troops from another attack on Madrid. This plan worked: on January 8, in the coldest weather, the Republicans captured Teruel, but on February 21, 1938, after six weeks of heavy artillery shelling and bombing, they were forced to retreat under the threat of encirclement.

End of the war.

The Francoists consolidated their victory with a new offensive. In March 1938, almost 100 thousand soldiers, 200 tanks and 1 thousand German and Italian aircraft began an offensive through Aragon and Valencia to the east towards the sea. The Republicans were exhausted, they lacked weapons and ammunition, and after the defeat in Teruel they were demoralized. By the beginning of April, the rebels reached Lleida, and then descended along the Ebro River valley, cutting off Catalonia from the rest of the republic. Soon after this they reached the Mediterranean coast.

In July, Franco launched a powerful offensive against Valencia. The stubborn fighting of the Republicans slowed his progress and exhausted the Phalangists' forces. But by July 23, the Francoists were less than 40 km from the city. Valencia was under direct threat of capture. In response, Rojo launched a spectacular diversionary maneuver by launching a major offensive across the Ebro River to restore contact with Catalonia. After a desperate three-month battle, the Republicans reached Gandesa, 40 km from their original positions, but stopped when Phalangist reinforcements were transferred to the area. By mid-November, with huge losses in manpower, the Republicans were thrown back. On January 26, 1939 Barcelona capitulated. On March 4, 1939, in Madrid, the commander of the Republican Army of the Center, Colonel Segismundo Casado, rebelled against the Republican government, hoping to stop the senseless bloodshed. Franco flatly refused his proposals for a truce, and troops began to surrender along the entire front line. When nationalists entered empty Madrid on March 28, 400 thousand Republicans began to exodus from the country. The Falangist victory led to the establishment of Franco's dictatorship. More than 1 million people ended up in prisons or labor camps. In addition to the 400 thousand who died during the war, another 200 thousand people were executed between 1939 and 1943.

Spain during the Second World War.

When World War II began in September 1939, Spain was weakened and devastated by the Civil War and did not dare take the side of the Berlin-Rome Axis. Therefore, Franco’s direct assistance to the allies was limited to sending 40 thousand soldiers of the Spanish Blue Division to the Eastern Front. In 1943, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, Franco began to cool relations with Germany. At the end of the war, Spain even sold strategic raw materials to the Western allies, but this did not change their attitude towards Spain as an enemy country.

Spain under Franco.

At the end of the war, Spain was diplomatically isolated and was not a member of the UN and NATO, but Franco did not lose hope for reconciliation with the West. In 1950, by decision of the UN General Assembly, UN member states were given the opportunity to restore diplomatic relations with Spain. In 1953, the United States and Spain entered into an agreement to establish several US military bases in Spain. In 1955 Spain was admitted to the UN.

Economic liberalization and economic growth in the 1960s were accompanied by some political concessions. In 1966, the Organic Law was adopted, which introduced a number of liberal amendments to the constitution.

The Franco regime gave rise to political passivity of the vast majority of Spaniards. The government did not even try to involve broad sections of the population in political organizations. Ordinary citizens showed no interest in government affairs; most of them were looking for favorable opportunities to improve their standard of living.

Since 1950, illegal strikes began to break out in Spain, and in the 1960s they became more frequent. A number of illegal trade union committees emerged. The separatists of Catalonia and the Basque Country, who persistently sought autonomy, made strong anti-government demands. True, the Catalan separatists showed greater restraint compared to the extremist Basque nationalists from the Basque Fatherland and Freedom (ETA) organization.

The Spanish Catholic Church provided significant support to the Franco regime. In 1953, Franco concluded a concordat with the Vatican that the candidates for the highest hierarchs of the church would be chosen by the secular authorities. However, starting in 1960, the church leadership began to gradually dissociate itself from the policies of the regime. In 1975, the Pope publicly condemned the execution of several Basque nationalists.

In the 1960s, Spain began to establish close ties with Western European countries. Already in the early 1970s, up to 27 million tourists visited Spain annually, mainly from North America and Western Europe, while hundreds of thousands of Spaniards went to work in other European countries. However, the Benelux states opposed Spain's participation in the military and economic alliances of Western European countries. Spain's first request for admission to the EEC was rejected in 1964. While Franco remained in power, the governments of the democratic countries of Western Europe were unwilling to establish closer contacts with Spain.

In the last years of his life, Franco loosened his control over government affairs. In June 1973, he ceded the post of prime minister, which he had held for 34 years, to Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. In December, Carrero Blanco was assassinated by Basque terrorists and he was replaced by Carlos Arias Navarro, the first civilian prime minister after 1939. Franco died in November 1975. Back in 1969, Franco announced as his successor Prince Juan Carlos of the Bourbon dynasty, grandson of King Alfonso XIII, who led the state as King Juan Carlos I.

Transition period.

Franco's death accelerated the process of liberalization that had begun during his lifetime. By June 1976, the Cortes allowed political rallies and legalized democratic political parties. In July, the country's Prime Minister Arias, a consistent conservative, was forced to give up his chair to Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez. The bill, which paved the way for free parliamentary elections, was adopted by the Cortes in November 1976 and approved in a national referendum.

In the elections in June 1977, the Union of Democratic Center (UDC) of Suarez received a third of the votes and, thanks to the system of proportional representation, took almost half of the seats in the lower house of parliament. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) collected almost as many votes, but received only a third of the seats. In 1978, parliament adopted a new constitution, which was approved in a general referendum in December.

Suarez resigned in January 1981. He was succeeded by another MDC leader, Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo. Taking advantage of the change in power, conservative officers decided to stage a coup, but the king, relying on loyal military leaders, stopped the attempt to seize power.

In the early stages of the transition period, the country was torn by serious contradictions. Chief among them was the split between supporters of civilian democratic rule, on the one hand, and supporters of military dictatorship, on the other. The first included the king, the two main parties and most of the smaller parties, trade unions and entrepreneurs, i.e. in fact, most of Spanish society. Authoritarian forms of government were advocated by a few extremist organizations of the extreme left and extreme right, as well as some senior officers of the armed forces and the civil guard. Although there were significantly more supporters of democracy, their opponents were armed and ready to use weapons.

The second line of confrontation lay between supporters of political modernization and those who defended traditional foundations. Modernization was supported mainly by city dwellers who showed high political activity, while mainly the rural population was inclined towards traditionalism.

There was also a split between supporters of centralized and regional government. This conflict involved the king, the armed forces, political parties and organizations that opposed the decentralization of power, on the one hand, and advocates of regional autonomy, on the other. As always, Catalonia took the most moderate position, and the Basque Country took the most radical position. National left-wing parties advocated limited self-government but were against full autonomy.

In the 1990s, disagreements intensified between the right and left and modernizers over the path to transition to constitutional government. First, differences arose between the center-left Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the now dissolved center-right Union of Democratic Center (UDC). After 1982, similar differences emerged between the PSOE and the conservative People's Union (PU), renamed in 1989 the People's Party (PP).

Fierce disputes erupted over the details of the electoral process, constitutional provisions and laws. All these conflicts indicated a dangerous polarization of society and made it difficult to achieve consensus.

The process of transition to democracy was completed in the mid-1980s. By this time, the country had overcome the danger of returning to the old ways, as well as extremist separatism, which at times threatened the integrity of the state. Mass support for multi-party parliamentary democracy was clear. However, considerable differences in political views remained. Opinion polls indicated a preference for the center-left, along with a growing pull toward the political center.

Socialist rule.

In 1982, another attempt at a military coup was prevented. In the face of danger from the right, voters in the 1982 elections chose the PSOE led by Felipe González Márquez. This party won a majority of seats in both houses of parliament. For the first time since the 1930s, a Socialist government came to power in Spain. The SDC suffered such a severe defeat that after the elections it announced its dissolution. The PSOE governed Spain alone or in coalition with other parties from 1982 to 1996.

The policies of the socialists increasingly diverged from the programmatic guidelines of the left wing. The government adopted a capitalist economic development policy that included favorable treatment for foreign investment, privatization of industry, a floating peseta exchange rate, and cuts in social welfare programs. For almost eight years, the Spanish economy developed successfully, but important social problems remained unresolved. The increase in unemployment by 1993 exceeded 20%.

From the very beginning, trade unions opposed the policies of the PSOE, and even during the period of economic growth, when Spain had the most stable economy in Europe, there were mass strikes, sometimes accompanied by riots. They were attended by teachers, officials, miners, peasants, transport and healthcare workers, industrial workers and dockers. The one-day general strike of 1988 (the first since 1934) paralyzed the entire country: 8 million people took part in it. To end the strike, Gonzalez made a series of concessions, agreeing to increase pensions and unemployment benefits. In the 1980s, Spain began to cooperate more closely with Western countries in the economic and political sphere. In 1986, the country was admitted to the EEC, and in 1988 it extended for eight years a bilateral defense agreement that allows the United States to use military bases in Spain. In November 1992, Spain ratified the Maastricht Treaty establishing the EU.

Spain's integration with Western European countries and its policy of openness to the outside world guaranteed the protection of democracy from military coups and also ensured an influx of foreign investment.

Led by Gonzalez, the PSOE won parliamentary elections in 1986, 1989 and 1993, the number of votes cast for it gradually decreased, and in 1993, in order to form a government, the socialists had to enter into a coalition with other parties. In 1990, there was a wave of political revelations that undermined the authority of some parties, including the PSOE.

One source of tension in Spain remained the ongoing terrorism of the Basque group ETA, which claimed responsibility for 711 murders between 1978 and 1992. A huge scandal erupted when it became known that there were illegal police units that were killing ETA members in northern Spain. and southern France in the 1980s.

Spain in the 1990s.

The economic recession, which became evident in 1992, worsened in 1993, when unemployment rose sharply and production fell. The economic recovery that began in 1994 could no longer return the socialists to their former authority. Both in the June 1994 elections to the European Parliament and in the regional and local elections in May 1995, the PSOE took second place after the PP.

After 1993, to create a viable coalition in the Cortes, the PSOE took advantage of the support of the Convergence and Union Party (CIS), led by Catalan Prime Minister Jordi Pujol, who used this political connection to further fight for the autonomy of Catalonia. In October 1995, the Catalans refused to support the much-criticized Socialist government and forced it to hold new elections.

José Maria Aznar brought a new dynamic image to the conservative PP, which helped it win the elections in March 1996. However, to form a government, the PP was forced to turn to Pujol and his party, as well as the parties of the Basque Country and the Canary Islands. The new government granted additional powers to regional authorities; in addition, these bodies began to receive a twice as large share of income tax (30% instead of 15%).

The priority task in preparing the national economy for the introduction of a single European currency was that the Aznar government considered reducing the budget deficit through the strictest savings in government spending and the privatization of state-owned enterprises. The NP resorted to such unpopular measures as reducing the fund and freezing wages, reducing social security funds and subsidies. Therefore, at the end of 1996, it again lost ground to the PSOE.

In June 1997, after 23 years as head of the PSOE, Felipe Gonzalez announced his resignation. He was replaced in this post by Joaquin Almunia, who previously headed the Socialist party faction in parliament. Meanwhile, relations between Aznar's government and the main regional parties became complicated. The government faced a new campaign of terror waged by Basque separatists from ETA against senior government and municipal officials.

In March 2000, the People's Party won again, and its leader Aznar took over as prime minister.

On March 11, 2004, 13 explosions occurred in Madrid. 191 people died and 1,247 were injured. This terrorist attack was organized and carried out by al-Qaeda terrorists.

The explosions occurred three days before the parliamentary elections and were terrorists' response to the participation of the Spanish military in a military operation in Iraq. The Spaniards blamed Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar for the attacks. He lost the elections on March 14, 2004, and his successor, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, withdrew Spanish troops from Iraq.

In September 2011, Prime Minister José Luis Zapatero announced his resignation, and consequently the dissolution of the Spanish government. The reason for the resignation was the decline in the popularity of the Socialist Party, because Due to the crisis, the cabinet was forced to cut spending on social needs. Early elections took place on November 20, 2011. The conservative People's Party of Spain received the majority of votes (44%, i.e. 187 seats in parliament). Party leader Mariano Rajoy Bray became the new prime minister.

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