Useful information for tourists about Hungary, cities and resorts of the country. As well as information about the population, currency of Hungary, cuisine, features of visa and customs restrictions in Hungary.

Geography of Hungary

Hungary is a country in Central Europe, bordering Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia.

The Danube River crosses Hungary almost in the middle; another river, the Tisza, flows to the east; both are from north to south. The total area of ​​the country was equally divided into lowlands and mountains of medium height.

Most of the right bank of the Danube is occupied by a hilly plain - Transdanubia, which is crossed by a strip of limestone mountains with plateau-like massifs and a height of 400–700 m. Higher mountains stretch along the north-eastern border of Hungary, reaching their maximum value in the Matra massif. The highest point in Hungary, Mount Kekes (1015 m), is also located here.

West of the Danube is Lake Balaton - the largest not only in the country, but throughout Central Europe. This is the warmest lake in the region.

State

State structure

The form of government is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president. The head of government is the prime minister. Parliament is a unicameral National Assembly, elected by the population for a term of four years.

Language

Official language: Hungarian

Many Hungarians speak English, German or Russian.

Religion

Catholics - 67%, Protestants (mainly Lutherans and Calvinists) - 25%, Jews.

Currency

International name: HUF

1 forint = 100 fillers. Coins: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 forints. Banknotes: 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000 and 10000 for.

Currency exchange can only be done at official exchange offices, and a certificate of currency exchange must be kept until leaving the country.

History of Hungary

Modern Hungary was in ancient times part of the Roman province of Pannonia and was one of the first to be conquered by Germanic tribes in the second century AD. After this, the country was under the rule of the Huns, Avars and Franks. At the end of the 9th century, Pannonia was captured by the Madya Rami.
Stephen I (the Saint) became the first king of the Hungarians in 1000, receiving the blessing of Pope Sylvester II. For almost 300 years, the Kingdom of Hungary was independent, but after the Mongol invasion in 1241, royal power began to weaken and at the beginning of the 14th century foreign dynasties began to rule the country.
In 1521, Turkey began a successful war against the Hungarian king, after which the country actually broke up into several relatively independent regions and remained in this state for almost 150 years. At the beginning of the 18th century, power in the country passed to the Austrian royal house of Habsburg, and another 150 years later, Austria and Hungary became independent kingdoms under the rule of one emperor, and in 1867 Austria-Hungary arose.
On November 11, 1918, the empire was officially liquidated, and five days later Hungary was proclaimed a republic. In the 1920s, the monarchy was restored with the establishment of the pro-fascist Horthy regime, but in 1945 Hungary again became a republic. One of the important, albeit dark, pages of Hungarian history is the 1956 uprising, suppressed by Soviet troops.
In 1989, the Hungarian People's Republic was renamed the Hungarian Republic, the communists were effectively removed from power, and in March-April 1990 the first free multi-party elections were held in 45 years. Hungary is a member of the UN, IMF, World Bank, GATT, Council of Europe.

Popular attractions

Tourism in Hungary

Where to stay

Hungary attracts numerous tourists not only with its magnificent nature, but also with its excellent climate and numerous healing springs and thermal centers. Accommodation in Hungary offers many options to suit every taste. The official classification of hotels was adopted in Hungary in 2003. The gradation is generally accepted in Europe: from two to five stars.

In Hungary, you can stay in one of the fashionable hotels, where, in addition to excellent service and a beautiful, well-thought-out interior, you can enjoy a continental breakfast, the opportunity to use a fitness room, parking, a beauty salon or a hairdresser. Two or three star hotels offer acceptable service for a very affordable fee. Breakfast is included in the room rate; you should check the amenities in advance, as some rooms do not have a bathroom or toilet.

In resort areas, you can stay in one of the SPA hotels, which also range from two to five stars. Here, in addition to accommodation, guests can take advantage of spa services and treatment procedures. A higher level of service and a wide range of health services are provided by wellness hotels (graded from three to five stars).

In Hungary, you can also stay in a garni hotel, that is, one that does not have a restaurant. This is compensated by comfortable living conditions and relatively low fees. And the presence of numerous cafes and restaurants in the immediate vicinity will help solve food problems.

In addition, you can rent apartments. The cost of living here will depend both on the level of service and on proximity to historical monuments or thermal resorts. As a rule, apartments are rented for any period of time. During the tourist season, you should make reservations in advance.

Popular hotels

Excursions and attractions in Hungary

Hungary is one of the most famous thermal spas in Europe. Picturesque nature, healing springs and many historical and architectural attractions make holidays in Hungary varied and unforgettable.

One of Hungary's most famous attractions is Lake Balaton, the largest lake in central Europe. Balaton and its coastal area have long been famous for their mineral and thermal springs, and are also considered the most popular resort in Hungary. In the north-west of Lake Balaton is the small town of Heviz, and next to it, in the crater of a long-extinct volcano, is the lake of the same name - the largest thermal lake in Europe and the most popular place for spa treatment, the main specialization of which is the treatment of the musculoskeletal system .

A very popular destination is the picturesque Tihany Peninsula, which divides Lake Balaton into two parts. The main attraction of the peninsula is the Benedictine Abbey of St. Agnoche, built in the Baroque style. Along the northern shore stretches the Balaton Upland National Park with stunning volcanic landscapes. It also includes the Kish-Balaton conservation area. Above the shore of the lake rises Mount Badocany, which is famous for its vineyards. Among the most famous resorts of Lake Balaton, it is also worth highlighting Balatonfüred with its carbonic water sources, Tapolca with its famous caves (the air of the caves is considered very beneficial for the respiratory system), Siófok, which is the cultural center of Balaton, Keszthely with beautiful architectural monuments and the picturesque Balatonlelle with beautiful beaches . On the Balaton coast is the city of Sümeg, famous for the largest and one of the most ancient fortresses in the country.

The capital of Hungary, Budapest, located on the banks of the Danube, is rightfully considered one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Budapest impresses with various historical, architectural and cultural monuments. The main cultural center of the city is Andrássy Avenue with a huge number of famous buildings (the avenue is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List). Among the most famous attractions in Budapest, the most famous are: the Royal Palace (Buda Castle), St. Stephen's Basilica, the Parliament Building, Vajdahunyad Castle, the National History Museum of Hungary, the Aquincum Museum, the Opera House, Gresham Palace, Matthias Church, the Central Synagogue and the Freedom Bridge. The capital is also famous for its baths with thermal springs and healing water. The baths are located at the foot of the Buda Mountains, which are also famous for their stunningly beautiful caves. In the very center of Budapest, in the middle of the Danube, there is the picturesque Margaret Island with healing thermal and mineral springs. Budapest has a huge number of excellent restaurants that offer both traditional Hungarian dishes and masterpieces of world cuisine.

Debrecen is a famous European balneological resort. The most famous attractions of the city are the Reform Cathedral, the Déri Museum, the Cathedral of St. Anne, the Nagyörgy Thermal Park, the City Hall, the Windmill (the largest in Central Europe), the University building and much more.

Hungary is also famous for its ancient castles, among which the most interesting are: Brunswick Castle (Martonvasar), Grasszalkovich Castle (Gedel), Festhejic Palace (Keszthely), Wimpfen Castle (Erd), Siklos Fortress and the ruins of the king's castle Matvey Corvina in Visegrad.

Hungarian cities and resorts such as Veszprem, Miskolc, Pecs, Szeged, Győr, Vyšehrad, Hajdúszoboszló, Lillafüred and Nyregyháza are also popular among tourists.

Hungarian cuisine

Hungarian cuisine is characterized by dishes rich in harmonious taste, made using red peppers, onions, tomatoes and capsicums: the famous Hungarian goulash, chicken paprikash with dumplings and cabbage rolls.

The consumption of snacks in Hungary is very limited. The most popular are ham with horseradish, Hungarian sausage with salami, champignons in eggs and goose liver fried in lard, and meat salads.

The assortment of first courses is extensive. Among them, the first place is occupied by fish soup (halaszle) and chicken broth (ujhazi). Fish soup is prepared from different types of fish using paprika, both a spice and fresh, tomatoes and onions.

Paprika plays a leading role in almost all national dishes - for example, goulash, perekelt, tokan and paprikash. Goulash is a cross between a soup and a meat stew, perekelt is a stew in which chopped onions predominate, tokan is a dish similar to perekelt, but paprikash is the name for all dishes with sour cream sauce and paprika.

Popular flour dishes include noodles with cottage cheese, roll (with cherries, cottage cheese, poppy seeds), as well as shomloi and vargabelesh dumplings. Soup is usually served as the first course, followed by the main course and dessert.

The most famous Hungarian wine is Tokaji, which for centuries has held the honorary title of “king of wines and king wines.” The most valuable variety is “Tokay Asu”, the quality of which improves as late harvest grapes are added to the wine.

Hungarian beers Dreher, Aranyaszok, Kobanyai, Soproni and Bak. The most famous variety of champagne is Terley.

Hungarian cuisine is characterized by dishes rich in harmonious taste, made using red peppers, onions, tomatoes and capsicums: the famous Hungarian goulash, chicken paprikash with dumplings and cabbage rolls....

Tips

In restaurants, service is not included in the bill, so, as a rule, they tip 10-20% of the final amount. The same applies to hairdressers, beauty salons, taxis and other types of services.

Visa

Office hours

In Budapest, grocery stores and shopping centers are usually open from 07:00 to 19:00 on weekdays, and from 07:00 to 13:00 on Saturdays. On Sundays, only some large supermarkets are open until 14:00. Clothing and other consumer goods stores and department stores are open from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. on weekdays, and on Saturdays from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.

Museums are usually open daily from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., closed on Mondays. Many museums are open for free one day a week. Banks are open on weekdays from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., on Fridays from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m., and closed on Saturdays and Sundays.

Purchases

VAT on industrial goods in Hungary is 25%, on products and services - 12%. Foreigners leaving Hungary can claim the tax amount if the unit value of the goods exceeds 50 thousand Ft. This rule does not apply to antiques and works of art. There are several offices in Budapest where you can make tax-free purchases. But the refund will not be more than 18% of 25%.

You can get a tax refund from customs when you leave the country. Refunds are made in forints only. If you paid with a credit card when purchasing, the amount may be transferred to your bank account. In this case, make sure that the customs office has stamped the receipt.

The capital of Hungary - Budapest - is the famous “pearl of the Danube”. A mighty river divides the city in half. The bridge across it was built only in the nineteenth century. The structure connected the Hungarian capital Buda and the cities of Óbuda and Pest.

general information

The capital of Hungary is the main political, commercial, cultural, transport and industrial center of the country. The city is home to approximately two million two hundred thousand people (this is one fifth of all Hungary). By area, Budapest ranks sixth among all EU countries. It is the only city lying on both sides of the Danube. The two areas, separated by a river, differ significantly from each other structurally.

Buda

This part of the city is small in area, ancient, fascinating with its beauty. It charms with cobblestone streets, small colorful houses, and a combination of neoclassical and medieval architecture. Buda was built on gentle hills in the western part of the Danube. One of the main attractions is Fortress Hill - a narrow, flat and long hill located in a ring of perfectly preserved buildings in the Baroque, Renaissance or Gothic style. It is topped by the majestic Royal Palace.

Pest

This part of the capital is located on flat lands. Business life is concentrated here. Pest has many large shopping complexes built on wide avenues. The Parliament Building, built in neo-Gothic style, is the most famous in the city. From a distance it resembles the English Parliament, only without the legendary Big Ben.

Geographical position

The capital of Hungary, Budapest, is located in the low-lying Carpathian Basin. It is surrounded by the Alps, Carpathians and South Slavic mountain ranges. The highest point of the city is the city of Janos. Its height is 527 meters. According to geotectonic data, the settlement is located in the fault zone. This explains the presence of many thermal springs, thanks to which the city gained fame as a wonderful resort.

A look into the past

The lands on which the capital of Hungary, Budapest, is currently located, began to be settled more than one thousand years ago. It has been established that from the third century BC. Celtic tribes lived here. Shortly before the advent of our era, the territory became part of the Roman Empire. The Hungarians settled in these lands at the end of the ninth century. In the 13th century Buda received the status of the main city of the country. The ancient capital of Hungary fell into disrepair in 1541 after the Turkish takeover. The city gradually fell into decay, the number of its inhabitants decreased. The settlement was liberated in 1686.

The eighteenth century marked the beginning of large-scale development. Many new districts have appeared in the capital. The unification of Buda, Óbuda and Pest took place in 1873. Seven years later, a new city concept was developed, according to which new highways were laid and a triple boulevard ring was organized near the avenue.

Due to the fighting during World War II, the capital was seriously damaged. However, after the end of the war, many buildings were restored.

In 1950, the suburbs were annexed to the central part of the city. This is how Greater Budapest was formed. The metro appeared in the capital in the 1960s.

Transport system

The city of Budapest has an extensive public transport network. It includes twenty-nine tram, fourteen trolleybus and one hundred and eighty bus lines. It also includes a rack railway and three subway lines. Public transport starts at half past four in the morning and ends at eleven in the evening.

Islands

There are seven islands within the capital. These are Csepel, Hayodyari Sziget, Margit, Palotai, Haros Sziget, Nepsiget and Molnar Sziget.

Let's take a closer look at Margaret Island. It was named in this way in honor of the daughter of King Béla the Fourth, Margaret (in Hungarian her name sounds like “Margit”). The length of the island is 2.5 km, and the area is 0.965 sq. km. Most of this property is occupied by a park and numerous recreational facilities. Its territory is equipped with bicycle paths, a fitness center and other entertainment areas. In the thirteenth century, a monastery of the Dominican order was built on the island. The aforementioned Margarita labored in it. Later Fr. Margaret fell into disrepair. The period of oblivion ended only in the eighteenth century. A palace was built on the island, and the empty lands were planted with beautiful flowers and rare tree species.

Weather

The climate in the capital is temperate continental. Winters are generally mild and short. In summer, temperatures are high, but sweltering heat is rare.

"Air Gate"

Ferihegy International Airport began operating in 1950. Eleven years after its opening, the length of the runway was increased from 2500 to 3010 meters. The airport is equipped with three passenger terminals. In 2011 it was named after F. Liszt.

Attractions

The capital of Hungary is a very popular tourist destination. Budapest has many beautiful monuments, erected both many centuries ago and today. Of particular interest is the city's architecture, reflecting the diversity of styles.

Buda Palace

It is located in the old part of the city. For the first time, this palace became the residence of the king in the thirteenth century, and successfully performed the functions assigned to it for another seven hundred years. It was home to such kings as Lajos the Great, Charles the Third and Matthias the First. Currently, the palace houses many museums.

Buda Labyrinth

The capital of Hungary is famous for another unusual place. This is a natural labyrinth located under the palace described above. There are no other natural catacombs like this anywhere else on the planet.

The length of the labyrinth is 1 kilometer 200 meters. Its depth is sixteen meters. Exciting excursions are held daily (except Saturdays and Sundays) on the territory of these catacombs. The exhibition presented in the labyrinth highlights the history of Hungary from antiquity to the present day. The traditional conclusion of each excursion is a buffet.

Parliament

The Hungarian cities of Pest, Óbuda and Buda were united in 1873. Seven years after this significant event, members of the State Assembly decided to build a parliament building. It was assumed that this would emphasize the sovereignty of the Hungarian nation. The winner of the announced competition was the architect I. Steindl. Some of the ideas of his rivals were implemented in the buildings of the Ethnographic Museum and the Ministry of Agriculture.

Work on the iconic structure began in 1885. Eleven years later, the first meeting of the State Assembly took place within its walls. Construction was completely completed only in 1906. The building was erected in an eclectic style. In addition, you can consider the features of the Renaissance, Neo-Gothic and Baroque.

Heroes Square

This square is one of the main ones in the capital. It is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The City Park is nearby. The Millennium Memorial was erected in the center of the square. This is a composition with the leaders of the seven tribes that founded Hungary in the ninth century, as well as other prominent historical figures who played an important role in the development of the state.

Freedom Square

This is one of the most impressive squares in the capital. It is surrounded by beautiful buildings - the Hungarian National Bank, the American Embassy and the television center. In the northern part of the square you can see a monument to Soviet soldiers.

Vaci street

This is the heart of the capital. This street is pedestrian. It originates from pl. Vörösmarty, runs along the Danube and ends at the square. Fevam and the picturesque market. There are many shops open on Vaci, which is why the street is so popular among tourists and local fashionistas. It is known not only for its boutiques. In this area you can see unique architectural monuments. The facades of many buildings are decorated with mosaics and intricate cast-iron decorations. Vaci is called the center not only of shopping, but also of entertainment. On a street several hundred meters long there are elite restaurants and budget cafes, as well as hotels of different levels.

Andrássy Avenue

Its construction began in 1870. Some note that this avenue is somewhat reminiscent of the well-known Champs Elysees. At the end of every summer it becomes the site of the famous Budapest Parade.

More about the state

Hungary is a country located in the center of Europe. Ten million people live on its territory. The total area is ninety-three thousand square kilometers. Hungary is one hundred and eighth in the world in terms of territory and eighty-ninth in terms of population. The language with state status is Hungarian.

The country consists of twenty administrative-territorial units. It has no access to the sea. Hungary on the world map borders with Serbia, Ukraine, Croatia, Romania, Austria and Slovenia.

The predominant religion is Catholicism. More than fifty percent of the country's inhabitants are its adherents. Currently, Hungary (Budapest is the capital) is considered a country with a dynamically developing economy. It has been a member of NATO since 1955.

History of Hungary

Until the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Arpads ruled the country. Then they were replaced by the Anjou, Jagiellonian dynasties, as well as non-dynastic monarchs. In 1687, the state became part of the Habsburg possessions. 1848-1849 marked by a national revolution. Its leader was Lajos Kossuth. The uprising was suppressed only thanks to the help of the Russian expeditionary force. It was commanded by General Paskevich. But still, in 1867, Franz Joseph compromised with the country's elite. The result was the transformation of the Austrian Empire into a dual state. The history of Austria-Hungary entered a new direction. A legislative body was formed in the country - the State Assembly, which consisted of two chambers - Deputies and Peers.

Charles of Austria, the last Hungarian king, ascended the throne in 1916 under the name of Charles the Fourth. His removal from power occurred just two years later. The ruler died in absolute oblivion in 1922. It is noteworthy that in 2004, on the initiative of the Catholic Church, he was beatified.

The result of the democratic uprisings that swept across the country after the First World War was the collapse of the Austrian monarchy. The following states were formed on its lands: Czechoslovakia, Austria, the Kingdom of Slovenes, Serbs and Croats, as well as Hungary. There are four more independent countries on the world map.

On November 16, 1918, Hungary acquired the status of a people's republic, but it was soon lost. This happened as a result of a monarchical revolt. On August 6, 1919, the republic fell. The monarchy was restored, but the king could not be determined. Regent Miklos Horthy was appointed head of state.

In 1938, Hungary entered into an alliance with Nazi Germany. Thanks to this, the map of the country was replenished with the following territories: Transcarpathia and part of Czechoslovakia. Two years later, Transylvania also became part of the state. After Hungary was occupied by the troops of the anti-Hitler coalition, the regent hastily left the country. The State Assembly was convened in the fall of 1945. In 1946, its representatives adopted a law on the state form. According to this document, Hungary (the map is presented in the article) acquired the status of a republic. The head of the country, accordingly, from now on was the president, elected by the State Assembly.

Features of economic development

Hungary (see photo in the article) is a country with a rapidly developing economy. Most of the market transformations in it have already been practically completed. As for the advantages of the established system, they are as follows: the country is currently open to foreign investment, it has an effective taxation system, and bureaucratization has been reduced to the minimum possible. In addition, Hungary is distinguished by its developed industrial production (this is especially observed in modernized enterprises), declining inflation and a fully convertible currency (since 2001). When listing the weaknesses of the current economic system, the first thing mentioned is the gap in internal development, in which the eastern rural areas do not have adequate funding. The income gap remains high. Not enough energy is produced. Money laundering is not well controlled.

The country's main partner in foreign trade is Germany, providing more than twenty-five percent of Hungary's trade turnover.

Army

Significant reductions and reforms of the country's armed forces were carried out at the end of the Cold War. Today they are formed from two branches - the Air Force and the Ground Forces. The latter are also known as Honvedseg (Homeland Defenders Corps).

Hungary (Budapest is the capital of the country) began to be guided by new standards in matters of army organization and weapons after joining NATO. In 2004, a transition was made from universal conscription to a professional army.

State symbols

The flag of Hungary is a rectangular banner. It consists of three identical horizontal stripes of red, white and green. The ratio of length to width is 3:2. Why is the Hungarian flag painted in these colors? This is explained as follows: red symbolizes the blood of patriots shed in the battles for the independence of the country; white - a symbol of the nobility and morality of the Hungarian people; green reflects hope for a prosperous future for the country.

The coat of arms of Hungary is a shield divided into two parts (on the left there are red and white stripes, on the right there is a patriarchal cross resting on a golden crown, which stands on a green mountain with three peaks). He is crowned with the crown of St. Stefan.

The most remarkable settlements of the country

The map of Hungary with cities, which you can see below, gives an idea of ​​the territorial division of the country. The largest area is near the capital - Budapest, the smallest - near the town of Palsach with its 1114 inhabitants. The largest village, Solymar, is home to ten thousand people, while the smallest is home to only twenty.

The eastern capital of the country is called Debrecen. It regularly hosts a variety of events, including poetry festivals, jazz days, international choir competitions and stunning flower carnivals.

The small Orthodox town of Szentendre is especially popular among museum lovers. It has a special charm thanks to its pretty streets and beautifully decorated houses. An unforgettable experience will be left by the numerous pastry shops, from which the dizzying aroma of fresh baked goods can be heard.

Once upon a time, the city of Visegrad was the capital of the state. Currently, only ruins remain of it. By a mystical coincidence, only Solomon's Tower survived, which for a long time was the place of imprisonment of the notorious Count Dracula. The town is located forty kilometers from the capital.

Natural attractions

Hungary (photos presented in the article) is an incredibly beautiful country. And it is famous not only for its architectural monuments, museums, monuments, etc. There are many natural attractions on its territory. Let's talk about some of them in more detail.

Balaton

This lake is the largest in Central Europe. There are thermal and mineral springs on its coast. The reservoir is navigable and is home to more than twenty species of fish. A special service has been organized to care for the numerous swans living in these places.

Balaton Upland National Park

It is located north of the island. Balaton. The park was founded in 1997. It features a volcanic landscape. This area is mountainous, where you can see extinct volcanoes, empty geysers, and lava outcrops, memorable for their bizarre shapes. In the western meadow of Shashdi you can see a relict plant of the Ice Age - mealy primrose. It can't be found anywhere else in Hungary.

Heviz

This thermal lake is located near the city of the same name. Its area is forty-seven and a half thousand square kilometers. The water in this lake is rich in ammonium, potassium, calcium, sodium, fluorides, chlorides, iodides, bromides, carbonate peroxide, sulfates, sulfides, metaboric acid and dissolved oxygen. It's no surprise that this place is popular among those who want to improve their health.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Many cities in Hungary are famous for their unique sights of special cultural, historical and architectural value. And not only in the capital there is something to see.

Holloko

This village is the only open-air ethnographic museum of its kind. It is noteworthy that people still live in it to this day. The entire population of Holloko, which is more than four hundred people, is sensitive to the preservation of folk traditions and the way of life of their ancestors. Most of the buildings in the village are adobe houses with verandas decorated with ornate carvings. Local residents are actively involved in pottery, traditional embroidery, and wood carving. A visit to this place leaves an indelible impression, especially for residents of big cities.

Aggtelek Caves

They are located on the territory of the National Park. The most famous and largest is Baradla. Its length is twenty-six kilometers.

Slovak karst

This mountain range is located on the border of two states - Slovakia and Hungary. Since 1973 it has been protected as a special landform. The nearby territory has the status of a biosphere reserve. The massif consists of limestones and dolomites. It is covered with hornbeam and oak forests.

Conclusion

Hungary is a country with a long and complex history. Its capital, Budapest, has an interesting origin. The main city of the state was formed through the merger of several settlements. The Danube, as if cutting Budapest in half, is a kind of border between two parts of the capital, contrasting from a historical and geographical point of view. The map of Hungary with cities presented in the article reflects this feature of the city.

HUNGARY (Magyarorszäg), Republic of Hungary (Magyar Kôztârsasâg).

General information

Hungary is a state in Central Europe, in the central part of the Danube River basin. It borders in the north with Slovakia, in the east with Ukraine and Romania, in the south with the State Community of Serbia and Montenegro, as well as with Croatia and Slovenia, and in the west with Austria. Area 93.0 thousand km2. Population 10.06 million (2006). The capital is Budapest. The official language is Hungarian. The monetary unit is forint. Administrative-territorial division - 19 regions (council) and 1 city of republican subordination - Budapest (table).

Hungary is a member of the UN (1955), NATO (1999), CE (1990), EU (2004), OSCE (1973), WTO (1995), IMF (1982), IBRD (1982).

A. V. Drynochkin.

Political system

Hungary is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted on August 18, 1949 (as amended in 1989, as amended in 1989, 1997, 2003). The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by parliament on the proposal of at least 50 deputies by secret ballot for a period of 5 years (with the right to one re-election). A Hungarian citizen who is at least 35 years old and has the right to vote can be elected President.

The legislative (representative) body is the unicameral parliament - the State Assembly (Country Assembly), elected for 4 years under a mixed system: 176 deputies - in single-mandate electoral districts in a majoritarian system in two rounds, 152 deputies - according to party lists in multi-member territorial electoral districts, 58 deputies - according to party lists in the national electoral district. For multi-member constituencies, a 5% barrier applies.

Executive power belongs to the government. The Prime Minister is elected by the National Assembly, ministers are appointed by the President on the proposal of the Prime Minister.

Hungary has a multi-party system. Leading parties: Hungarian Socialist Party, Hungarian Civic Party (FIDES), Hungarian Democratic Forum, Alliance of Young Democrats, Union of Free Democrats.

B. A. Strashun.

Nature

Relief. Most of the territory of Hungary is occupied by the Middle Danube Plain: in the east - the vast flat low-lying plain of Alfeld; to the west of the Danube stretches the dissected hilly plain of Dunantul (height up to 300 m). In the north-west of the country there is the Kishalföld lowland, bounded along the western border of Hungary by the foothills of the Alps with a height of 500-800 m. Between the Dunantul plain and the Kishalföld lowland, the Middle Hungarian mountains with plateau-like massifs (height 400-700 m) stretch from south-west to north-east Bakony , Vertes, Gerece, Pilis, Visegrady-Hegyszeg. In the southern part of Dunantul, the blocky Mechek Mountains rise up to 681 m high (Mount Zengyo). The north of Hungary is occupied by the spurs of the Western Carpathians (altitude 800-1000 m), dissected by wide river valleys, represented by isolated volcanic massifs and limestone plateaus - Börzeny, Cserhat, Matra (the highest point in Hungary - Mount Kekes, 1015 m), Bükk, Zempleni-Hegyszeg, etc. (see map). In the mountainous regions of Hungary, karst landforms are widespread - caves, including Agtelek (Baradla); sinkholes, underground rivers, etc.

Geological structure and minerals . Hungary is located within the Pannonian intermountain basin - the largest in the European part of the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The depression has an anomalously thinned crust (up to 25 km; with a reduced granite-metamorphic layer) and lithosphere (less than 80 km); the heat flow is sharply (2-3 times) increased. The internal structure of the depression is complex. The formation is associated with long-term extension (rift stage - middle Miocene). It is superimposed on the internal zones of the Alpine-Carpathian and Dinaric branches of the mobile belt and is framed by their central and external zones. The heterogeneous Caledonian-Hercynian-Early Alpine fold-nappe basement is covered by a thick Neogene-Quaternary cover. In the structure of the basement, two blocks are distinguished - Alkapa (in the north-west) and Thissia (in the south-east), separated by a narrow Sava-Transdanubian zone, located between the so-called Balaton Line (continuation of the Periadriatic Fault) and the Middle Hungarian lineament, which intersect the depression in the north -east direction. The structure of the first block involves submerged continuations of the internal zones of the Central Alps and Slovak Carpathians (weakly metamorphosed Paleozoic and Mesozoic fold-nappe complexes). At the base of the Thissia block are Paleozoic, partly Precambrian, metamorphic rocks (gneisses, crystalline schists), intruded by Carboniferous granites and overlain by Permian continental, Middle and Upper Jurassic shallow and deep-water sediments, Lower Cretaceous continental-riftogenic alkaline basalts, deformed in the Late Cretaceous. The narrow Debrecen-Solenoksky trough is made of Upper Cretaceous - Oligocene flysch. The Sava-Transdanubian cover-shear zone is composed of Triassic-Lower Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic rocks, ophiolites; formed during the closure of a branch of the Mesozoic oceanic basin (Vardar-Meliata). In the late Oligocene - early Miocene, shear movement of the Alcapa and Thissia blocks occurred in this zone, which gave way to extension by the end of the early Miocene. The sedimentary cover of the depression reaches a thickness of 7 km; unevenly distributed. The section of the cover contains Neogene-Quaternary shallow-marine carbonate-clayey and freshwater (river, deltaic and lacustrine) sandy-clayey deposits and volcanic horizons. At the end of the Middle Miocene, a volcanic belt formed on the border of the depression with the Carpathians. Miocene volcanic rocks are represented by rhyolite-andesite lavas, tuffs, and ignimbrites. Pliocene volcanism had a predominantly basaltic composition.

The most important mineral resource is bauxite, the deposits of which are concentrated in the Middle Hungarian Mountains (Halimba, Nyirád, Iharkut, Iskászentgyörgy, etc.). Oil and natural combustible gas fields are located in the south, southeast (Kiskunhalas, Algyo, Pustaföldvár, Battonya, etc.), in the west (Lovasi, Budafa) of Hungary and northeast of Budapest (Demien group of oil fields). Lignite basins are localized in the northwestern foothills of the Bakony (Aika), Vertes (Oroslan, Tatabanya) massifs, in the southern foothills of the Gerece (Dorog) massif, in the spurs of the Western Carpathians (Nograd and Borsod). A lignite deposit has been identified along the western border of Hungary. Deposits of iron ores are in the north-east of the country (Rudabanya), manganese - in the Bakony (Urkut) massifs, lead-zinc - in the Matra mountains (Gyöngyösörossi), copper - in the spurs of the Western Carpathians (Rechk). Among the non-metallic minerals, fire-resistant clays, bentonite, kaolin, basalts, andesites, volcanic glass, perlite, sand, gravel, dolomite, limestone, etc. are known. Geothermal energy reserves are located mainly in the central and southern regions of the country. Mineral water springs are available in the western, southern, eastern and central regions.

Climate. Hungary is located in a temperate climate zone. The position of the territory of Hungary between the mountain systems of the Alps and the Carpathians determined the continental nature of the climate. Winter is relatively mild (average January temperature is from -2 to -4°C), summer is long and hot (average July temperature is 20-22°C). Precipitation per year ranges from 800-900 mm in the mountains and southwest of the country to 450-500 mm in the center and east of the Alföld lowland, where severe droughts often occur. Precipitation is heaviest in early summer and autumn.

Inland waters. The territory of Hungary belongs to the Danube River basin (length within Hungary is 410 km). The main right tributaries of the Danube within Hungary are the Drava, Raba, and Sio. The eastern part of Hungary belongs to the basin of the largest left tributary of the Danube - the Tisza River (length within Hungary is about 600 km, navigable for 444 km) with tributaries Körös, Sajó, Bodrog. Some areas (for example, between the Danube and Tisza rivers) are almost devoid of surface watercourses. The rivers of Hungary are characterized by significant inter-seasonal fluctuations in flow, water level heights and associated floods, to protect against which many rivers, mainly in the Tisza basin, are regulated: straightened by canals (Keleti-Fecsatorna, etc.) and surrounded by dams with a total length of about 4000 km. Numerous reservoirs are of flood control and irrigation importance. There are over 1 thousand lakes in the country, including Balaton, Neusiedlersee (within Hungary about 80 km 2), Velencey To (26 km 2). Near the southwestern tip of Lake Balaton there is the largest lake of thermal origin in Europe - Heviz (about 0.5 km 2), near which the balneal and mud resort of Heviz is located. Within the Alföld lowland there are small, often drying salt lakes. Hungary's annually renewable water resources amount to 104 km 3 , mainly due to transit flow; water availability is about 10.5 thousand m 3 of water per person per year. 7% of water resources are used for economic purposes (of which 59% are consumed by industrial enterprises, 32% are used for agricultural needs, 9% for municipal water supply).

Soils, flora and fauna. On the plains of Hungary, chernozems predominate; in the Alföld lowland there are solonetzic chernozems, solonetzes and solonchaks; along the Tisza and Danube valleys there are alluvial soils. Brown soils and rendzins are common in mountainous and hilly areas. Over a large area, soils are subject to intense deflation, erosion and secondary salinization.

The vegetation cover of Hungary has been significantly altered by humans; cultivated vegetation (arable lands, gardens, vineyards, etc.) predominates in most of the territory. Forests occupy 19.9% ​​of Hungary's territory. Broad-leaved (oak, hornbeam-beech and beech) forests are common in the Middle Hungarian mountains and in the north of Hungary with an altitude of 300-400 m. In the mountains of Börzen, Bükk, Matra at an altitude of 800-1000 m there are pine and spruce-fir forests. Artificial plantings (7.3% of the forested area), which have important anti-erosion and water conservation significance, are represented mainly by plantings of poplars and white acacia. Up to 1/4 of Hungary's forests are degraded by acid rain. In the eastern regions of Hungary (Hortobágy), fragments of indigenous vegetation have been preserved - pashts, represented by cereals, mainly feather grass with an admixture of forbs, steppes combined with groves of oaks, birch with areas of juniper and silver poplar. Within the Alföld lowland there are areas of salt marsh vegetation.

The Hungarian fauna includes 83 species of mammals, including 9 endangered species. Hares, hedgehogs, field mice, gophers, and foxes are common. The avifauna is dominated by steppe and forest birds (larks, thrushes, woodpeckers, owls, etc.); Waterfowl and wading birds, including egrets, nest on the reed-covered shores of lakes and reservoirs. There are 35 species of amphibians and reptiles. The reservoirs are inhabited by pike perch, bream, pike, etc.; Carp are bred everywhere.

The country has 236 protected natural areas with a total area of ​​8.3 thousand km2, including the Hortobágy and Agtelek national parks, included in the World Heritage List.

Lit.: Vlasova T.V. Hungary. M., 1948; Ressi M. Physical and economic geography of Hungary. Bdpst, 1977; Climate atlas of Hungary. Bdpst, 1993; Romanova E. P. Modern landscapes of Europe. M., 1997.

M. A. Arshinova; A. A. Zarshchikov (geological structure and minerals).

Population

The majority of the population is Hungarian - 92.3% (2001 census). Of the ethnic minorities in Hungary, most are Gypsies (1.9%), Germans (0.6%), Slovaks (0.2%), Croats (0.2%), Romanians (0.1%); there are Ukrainians, Serbs, Slovenes, Poles, Greeks, Bulgarians, Rusyns, Armenians.

After World War II, the country's population grew steadily (9.2 million people in 1949; 9.8 million people in 1960; 10.3 million people in 1970). Since 1980, the population of Hungary has been gradually declining. The main demographic problems are low birth rate (9.76 per 1000 inhabitants in 2005) and relatively high mortality (13.19 per 1000 inhabitants); The fertility rate is 1.32 children per woman. Infant mortality rate is 8.57 per 1000 live births (2005). Negative natural population growth (-0.26%) is not compensated by migration influx (migration balance 0.86 per 1000 inhabitants, 2005). The share of children under 15 years old is 15.8%, people of working age (15-64 years old) are 69.1%, elderly people (65 years old and older) are 15.1%. On average, there are 91 men for every 100 women. Average life expectancy is 72.4 years (men - 68.18, women - 76.89 years).

Average population density 108.4 people/km 2 (2005). The capital region is the most densely populated (more than 1/4 of the country's population lives in the Budapest metropolitan area). The share of the urban population is about 60%. Large cities (thousands of people, 2006): Budapest (with suburbs 2578.5), Debrecen (204.4), Miskolc (178.7), Szeged (159.8), Pecs (155.9), Győr (128. 9), Nyiregyhaza (116.8), Kecskemet (105.8), Szekesfehervar (103.7).

In total, 4.17 million people are employed in the economy (2004), in the service sector - 66.7% of those employed (2002), in industry and construction - 27.1%, in agriculture and forestry - 6.2%. The unemployment rate is 5.9% of the country's economically active population (2004).

A. V. Drynochkin.

Religion

More than half (about 51.9%) of the population of Hungary are Catholics, about 15.9% are Calvinists, about 3% are Lutherans, about 2.6% are Greek Catholics, about 1% are other Christian denominations, including various Protestant denominations; about 11.1% of the Hungarian population consider themselves generally believers (without a strictly defined religious affiliation) or consider themselves to be non-Christian or non-traditional faiths; about 14.5% consider themselves non-believers.

On the territory of Hungary there are: 4 metropolises (Eger, Esztergom-Budapest, Kalocsa-Kecskemet, Veszprem), 9 dioceses, 1 territorial abbey (Pannonhalma), 1 Exarchate of the Byzantine rite (Miskolc), more than 2220 parishes of the Roman Catholic Church; 1 diocese (Budapest and Hungarian; established in 2000), including 11 parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate; 1 diocese (Budim), which has about 40 parishes of the Serbian Orthodox Church; There are 18 parishes of the Romanian Orthodox Church, 2 parishes of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 2 parishes of the Austrian Metropolis of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. On the territory of Hungary there are: 4 church districts of the Protestant Reformed Church (about 1,200 parishes); 2 church districts of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (about 320 parishes); there are more than 70 parishes of the Hungarian Methodist Church; There are a few Pentecostal communities, communities of Seventh-day Adventists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Bogomils, Unitarians, as well as parishes of the New Apostolic Church.

The beginning of the Christianization of Hungary dates back to the mid-10th century, when Christianity began to spread in Transylvania, mainly under the influence of Greek missionaries.

The Hungarian Constitution, adopted in 1989, as well as the Law on Freedom of Religion and Freedom of Conscience and the Law on the Church (both adopted in 1990) guarantee freedom of conscience and proclaim the separation of church and state, establishing equal rights for representatives of all religious denominations.

Historical sketch

The territory of Hungary from ancient times to the end of the 10th century. The oldest monuments in Hungary date back to the Lower Paleolithic (Vertészsölles and others). In the Middle Paleolithic of Hungary, 4 stages are distinguished: typical Mousterian cultures of the Wabonian, Mousterian Levallois, Charentien-Jankovicien, early Selet; in the upper - three: Gravette, developed Selet - Aurignac and Madeleine. In the Mesolithic of Hungary, the Jasberény and Jastelek phases are distinguished, the latter partly synchronous with the beginning of the Neolithic.

The productive economy in Hungary has been spreading since the 7th millennium BC as a result of influences from the Balkans. In southern Hungary, the Early Neolithic is represented by the Körös culture (see Starčevo). Under its influence, in western Hungary after the Bichke transition period, the Transdanubian group of linear-band ceramics culture was formed, and in eastern Hungary, after the Satmar transition period, the Alföld linear ceramics culture was formed. These traditions continued in the Middle Neolithic: in western Hungary - by the Zheliz culture ("ceramics of musical notes"), in northeastern Hungary - by the Tisadob culture, the Bükk and Satmar painted ceramics cultures formed from it, in Middle Potisie - by the Estar painted ceramics culture, in the southeast of Hungary - by the Sakalhat group; Monuments of the Vinca A culture appeared in the valley of the Maros River. Their traditions can be traced in the late Neolithic. In western Hungary, after the Sopot-Biczke transition period, the Lendel culture spread, in eastern Hungary (from north to south) - the cultures of Csöshalom, Herpai, and Tisza. Continuations of the Tisza and Csöshalom groups are the Tisapolgar (Early Chalcolithic) and Bodrogkerestur (Middle Chalcolithic) cultures. In Western Hungary, under external influence, the Lasinha - Balaton cultures and the Furchenstich I and II ceramics are formed. In the Late Chalcolithic, almost the entire Carpathian Basin was occupied by the Baden culture; only to the east of the Tisza are monuments of the Yamnaya culture known.

The beginning of the Bronze Age in Hungary dates back to approximately 2800, the end - 800 BC. The earliest culture of this era is Vučedol in southeastern Hungary, in other areas - the Makó culture.

Later, under influence from the south, the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture developed in western Hungary, Nagyrev in central Hungary, Niršeg in the north-east, and Mako continued to exist in the north. Then the pastoral bell-shaped Beaker culture spread in western Hungary, and in the Maros valley - the Obeba-Pitváros group, associated with southern cultures. At the next stage, a cattle-breeding economy continued to exist in western Hungary - the Kiszapostag culture; in the Danube valley and to the east, an economy based on intensive agriculture of the Western Asian and Balkan circles spread, which is associated with the appearance of tells of the Nagyrev, Perjamos, Hatvan, Ottoman cultures and continuing their traditions (except Nagyrev) cultures Vatya, Füzesabony, Gyulavarshad. At the same time, the culture of ceramics with chalk inlay spread in western Hungary. Since the end of the Middle Bronze Age, development in Hungary was determined mainly by migrations from the west, which led to cultural unification. In the Late Bronze Age of barrow burials, the culture occupied western Hungary and the western part of Alfeld; to the east the Hajdubagos group, the Jedek and Pilin cultures were formed. At the end of the Bronze Age, western Hungary was part of the area of ​​the burial urns of the Fields culture, the Kijatice culture spread in northern Hungary, and Gava in eastern Hungary.

The beginning of the Early Iron Age in western Hungary is represented by the Hallstatt culture, and in eastern Hungary by monuments of the so-called Pre-Scythian and Scythian periods (8th-4th centuries), reflecting several waves of influence of Eastern European cultures on local groups. In western Hungary, from the end of the 5th century, isolated finds are known, then burial grounds and settlements of the Laten culture, indicating the penetration of the Celts, who partially conquered or displaced local groups of Illyrian-Pannonians. By the end of the 1st millennium, to the west of the Danube the tribes of the Boii, Tevrisci, Azals, Aravisci, and Herkuniates were known, and to the east - the Ozians, Kotins, and Anartsians. In the middle of the 1st century BC, the Dacians of Burebista occupied the territory of Alfeld.

By the mid-1st century AD, the lands up to the Middle Danube had become part of the Roman Empire, and western Hungary became part of the province of Pannonia. Following the military occupation (legion camps in Brighetio and Aquinca), colonies and municipalities were founded (Arabona, Aquincus, Intercisa, Gorsium, Savaria, Scarbancia, Sopiana, etc.), the local Celtic and Illyrian population was organized into special districts (civitates peregrinae) . Imperial Trajan divided Pannonia into Lower (capital - Aquincus) and Upper (capital - Carnunt). Pannonia was under constant threat from its neighbors: the Germans from the north and the Sarmatians from the east; It especially suffered during the Marcomannic wars. 3rd century - a period of economic and cultural prosperity of the province. During the administrative reforms of the late 3rd century, the territory of Hungary became part of the provinces of Pannonia-Prima (capital - Savaria), Pannonia-Valeria (Sopian), Pannonia-Secunda (Sirmium), Pannonia-Savia (Siscia). The traditions of the Romanized population continued to develop even after the real power of the Roman Empire on the territory of Hungary ended at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century.

At the beginning of the 1st century, the Sarmatian tribes of the Iazyges settled east of the Danube, later the Roxolans and Alans; at the end of the 2nd century, the Vandals appeared in northeastern Hungary, and the Quads appeared north of Budapest. From the last quarter of the 4th century, their individual groups settled in the provinces as federates. In this capacity, detachments of the Huns also appeared on the territory of western Hungary in 409 (or 420s), and as a result, by the middle of the 5th century, the entire territory of Hungary became part of their power (Attila’s capital was in Alfold). After the collapse of the Hunnic state, most of western Hungary was controlled by the Germanic tribes of the Sciri and Ostrogoths, after the migrations of 526/527 and 546, and until 568 by the Lombards. In Potisye, from the 2nd half of the 5th century, the state of the Gepids emerged. After his defeat in 567, Avars appeared on the territory of Hungary, and the Avar Khaganate was formed. No later than the 2nd half of the 6th century, Slavic groups penetrated the territory of Hungary.

In 796, the Avar Khaganate was defeated by Charlemagne, western Hungary was made dependent on the Frankish state. In the 9th - early 10th centuries, the lands in the middle Danube region were part of the Great Moravian Empire, the Duchy of Blaten. Since 896, tribes of nomadic Hungarians led by the leader Arpad began to invade them, the so-called Finding of the Homeland by the Hungarians takes place. In 906, having defeated the Great Moravian Empire, they settled between the Tisza and Danube rivers, as well as in the Danube region and began to carry out predatory raids on Germany, Northern Italy, and Byzantium. The limit to Hungarian expansion was set in the mid-10th century. Completely defeated in the Battle of Lech in 955 (near Augsburg) by the German Emperor Otto I the Great, the Hungarians abandoned further conquests and finally settled in the middle Danube region.

In the 2nd half of the 10th century, several principalities arose in the territory inhabited by the Hungarians, headed by Geza (from the Arpad dynasty), Coppany, Gyula, Ayton. At the same time, the Christianization of the Hungarians by Byzantine and Western missionaries began, and the Western Church gradually took a dominant position. Having adopted Christianity around 973 and entered into alliances with the German emperor and German princes, Geza achieved a leading position in Hungary and ensured the transfer of power in 997 to his son Istvan.

Kingdom of Hungary (1001-1526). In 1000 (1001) Istvan became the first Hungarian king (ascended to the throne under the name Istvan I). By 1018, he had completed the unification of the Hungarian lands under his rule.

Political and administrative reforms and the legislative activities of Istvan I marked the end of the feudalization process. During the reign of Laszlo I (1077-95) and Kalman (1095-1116), the Hungarian kingdom expanded significantly. It included (and remained until 1918) the Kingdom of Croatia, including Dalmatia, and Slovakia. Under their successors, power struggles and foreign policy failures threatened the kingdom's internal unity. King Béla III (1172-96), under whom Hungary experienced a new upsurge, crushed internal opposition and strengthened royal power.

At the beginning of the 13th century, Hungary entered a period of feudal fragmentation. The power of magnates increased. The Golden Bull of 1222 by King Endre II (1205-35), regulating the privileges of the nobles, gave them the right to resist the king if he violated their rights. The weakening of Hungary made it easy prey for the Mongol-Tatars in 1241-42. Bela IV (1235-70), who restored the country, pursued a policy of colonization, inviting Germans, Slavs, and Vlachs to the deserted lands, supported cities, giving them the right of self-government. Under his successors, the struggle for power intensified, the kings could not put an end to the separatism of the barons, and the state apparatus actually ceased to function.

After the suppression of the Arpad dynasty in 1301, the Hungarian magnates, trying to maintain a leading political position, elected foreigners as kings. In 1308, the throne was taken by the representative of the Angevin dynasty, Charles Robert. He stopped feudal strife, strengthened royal power, providing it with constant income and, returning the domain lands seized by magnates, promoted the development of cities, initiated mining, and patronized international trade. Under him, the legal foundations of serfdom were laid. His son Lajos I the Great (1342-82) pursued an active foreign policy, reorganized the judicial system and the royal office, regulated land relations between the crown and the nobles, and under him the process of enslavement of the peasants was actually completed. In 1370-82 there was a Polish-Hungarian union. After the death of Lajos I, as a result of the struggle between groups of magnates (the so-called leagues of barons), the crown went to Zsigmond I of Luxemburg (1387-1437; Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund I). The loss of the king's status as the richest landowner and the concentration of land and wealth in the hands of magnates changed the balance of political forces in Hungary for a long time. Under Zsigmond, there were uprisings of magnates, and in 1401 he was arrested by the league. In an effort to strengthen his power with the support of cities and the church, he reorganized the state apparatus, removing administrative and state affairs from the jurisdiction of the barons and transferring them to “special advisers” from the middle nobles loyal to him. The election of Zsigmond as the Czech king dragged Hungary into the Hussite wars. The defense system created by Zsigmond against the Turks who appeared near the borders of Hungary made it possible to delay their advance for a century. Under the successors of Zsigmond I, when the struggle of the baronial leagues continued (1437-57), Hungary became a class monarchy. Legislative power belonged to the king, as well as to the magnates and nobles, who formalized (1440) the privilege of electing the king. The activities and composition of the State Assembly were regulated: from 1439, nobles also began to participate in it; townspeople had virtually no access to government power. Regent (1446-52) under the young Laszlo V, the Transylvanian magnate Janos Hunyadi, who emerged during the struggle of the leagues, led a number of successful campaigns against the Turks, including a victory in the Battle of Belgrade in 1456. Elected king with the support of the middle nobility, the son of Janos Matthias Hunyadi (1458-90) achieved the strengthening of personal power, centralized public administration, increased the income of the crown, and created a permanent army of mercenaries. During his reign, successful wars were fought with the Turks and neighboring countries - the Czech Republic and Austria. After the death of Matthias, the magnates strengthened their economic and political power. They elected Ulaslo II Jagiellon to the throne (Czech king Vladislav II; until 1526 there was a personal Czech-Hungarian union) signed pre-election capitulations, thereby weakening his position in the confrontation with the magnates. The stable position of Hungary during the reign of Ulaslo II Jagiellon (1490-1516) was achieved after the magnates established their control over all state institutions: the royal council and the chancellor ruled the country without encountering opposition from the king. The process of stratification that took place among the nobles at the end of the 15th century was consolidated by the decisions of the State Assembly of 1498. The middle-class nobility, ruined due to the transfer of peasants to large landowners, lost the opportunity to participate in the work of higher authorities. The naturalization of rent and the increase in corvee observed in the 2nd half of the 15th century, as well as the prohibition of the removal of peasants by new owners, caused the Dozhi Gyorgy uprising of 1514. In 1514, the State Assembly legalized the “eternal dependence” of peasants and prohibited them from having weapons. Under Lajos II Jagiellon (1516-1526), ​​the impotence of royal power and the loss of combat effectiveness of the army in the absence of help from other European states led to a catastrophic defeat from the Turks in the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, where the king died. In 1541, Turkish troops captured the capital of Hungary - Buda.

Hungary under Habsburg rule. In 1526, two kings were elected simultaneously - the Transylvanian voivode J. Zapoyai, who was supported by the so-called national party, and the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who also became the Czech king. Until 1541, against the backdrop of Turkish expansion, there was a civil war in Hungary. As a result, Western Hungary and Croatia, as part of the Kingdom of Hungary, came under the rule of Ferdinand I, Eastern Hungary and Buda fell under the rule of the Porte (Buda Pashalik), Transylvania and Partium (Zatisje) formed the Principality of Transylvania under the suzerainty of the Turkish Sultan.

The Hungarian kingdom became part of the multinational state created by the Habsburgs, which also included Austria and the Czech Republic. Ferdinand I (1526-64), Maximilian II (1564-76) and Rudolf II of Habsburg (1576-1608) pursued a centralizing and unifying policy and, having broken the power of the estates, sought to strengthen the power of the monarch through estate-representative institutions. From the end of the 16th century, the Habsburgs pursued the policy of Counter-Reformation in the most severe form. In response, there was a series of anti-Habsburg protests by the estates in various parts of their domains. As a result of the successes of the anti-Habsburg movement under the leadership of I. Bocskai (1604-06), the Peace of Vienna of 1606 was signed, which guaranteed equality of Protestants with Catholics and provided for measures to strengthen class self-government. The confederation of 1608-1609 of the Hungarian, Moravian, Austrian estates against Rudolf II forced King Matthias II (1608-18) to fulfill their main demands. Large anti-Habsburg movements in the 1st half of the 17th century were led by the Transylvanian princes Gabor Bethlen and Rakoczi Gyorgy I.

The wars with Turkey, which lasted until the end of the 17th century, left their mark on the internal development of Hungary and relations with the Habsburgs. The peace treaties of 1547 and 1568 ended the first stage of the wars in favor of the Porte and established a semblance of a border. The Hungarians lost Buda, Székesfehérvár, Esztergom and other major centers. The war of 1593-1606 also generally ended in favor of the Ottoman Empire, while the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606 created a system of some balance of power that lasted until the 1660s. The military clashes of the late 1640s-50s escalated into the war of 1663-64. Despite the victories of the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Peace of Vasvár in 1664 consolidated the Sultan's acquisitions in Hungary and Transylvania. The dissatisfaction of the Hungarians with the internal policies of the Habsburgs and disappointment with the conditions of the Peace of Vasvár contributed to the emergence of the so-called conspiracy of F. Vesselényi (1666-70). Conspirators from among the Hungarian and Croatian magnates wanted to overthrow the power of the Habsburgs and turn the Kingdom of Hungary into a semblance of the Principality of Transylvania (led by a Hungarian magnate who recognized the suzerainty of the Porte), counting on the help of foreign powers (France, Venice, Porte). After the liquidation of the conspiracy, King Leopold I (1657-1705) created (1673) a new authority - the governorate, which limited the Hungarian class administration, introduced large German detachments into the country and removed a significant part of the Hungarians from the garrisons. Most of the dismissed people, minor nobles, and fugitive peasants formed an army of “wanderers” based in Transylvania and in the border areas. I. Tököy, who led the movement in 1678, with his supporters - the Kurucians, with the support of the Ottomans, captured 13 north-eastern Hungarian counties and formed there (1682) a vassal principality from Turkey, which existed until 1685. The successes of the Kurucs and the worsening international position of the Habsburgs forced them to make concessions to the estates and restore (1681) the operation of the State Assembly. During the war with the Ottoman Empire of 1683-99, in which Poland, Venice, and, from 1686, Russia sided with the Habsburgs, Buda was liberated in 1686, and then the entire middle Danube region. The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 assigned most of the territory of Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia to the Habsburgs. In 1687, the State Assembly recognized the hereditary power of the Habsburgs in the Kingdom of Hungary and renounced the “right of resistance” granted by the Golden Bull of 1222. Under the influence of the anti-Habsburg movement of 1703-1711, led by Rakoczy Ferenc II, in 1707 the State Assembly announced the overthrow of the Habsburgs. Concluded after a series of military failures by the rebels, the Peace of Satmar of 1711 obliged the Habsburgs to respect the rights and freedoms of Hungary, while strengthening the position of the king.

The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, issued by Emperor Charles VI (Hungarian King Charles III, 1711-40), was recognized by Hungary at the State Assembly of 1722-23; At the same time, the autonomous status of Hungary was confirmed. Maria Theresa (1740-80), who became the Hungarian queen, with the active help of the Hungarians, asserted her rights to the Habsburg possessions and returned the monarchy to the position of a great power. The reforms carried out by Maria Theresa and Joseph II (1780-1790) in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were aimed at centralizing government, modernizing the economy and social relations. The peasant reform of 1767 regulated feudal duties, the educational reform of 1777 laid the foundations for secular education in Hungary, and censorship was weakened. Newspapers and magazines began to be published in the country in German, Hungarian, and Slovak (Magyar Hirmondô, Pressburger Zeitung, Magyar Museum, Pressburské noviny). Under Maria Theresa, the first manufactories were founded in Hungary; in the 1780s there were already about a hundred of them. Joseph II patronized manufactures, issued a law on religious tolerance (1781), which gave non-Catholics access to government positions and stopped discrimination against Jews, abolished serfdom (1785; restored, however, after his death), and abolished a large number of monasteries and orders. At the same time, pursuing a policy of absolutist centralization, Joseph II tried to destroy Hungarian self-government. He refused to be crowned with the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen and moved it to Vienna, stopped convening the State Assembly, liquidated (1785) the comitat system, pursued a policy of Germanization, including the introduction of office work in German in all government institutions.

Influenced by the French Revolution of the 18th century, the opposition nobility developed a plan to overthrow the Habsburgs and elect Duke Charles August of Weimar as king. In January 1790, Joseph II was forced to promise to restore the State Assembly in Hungary and self-government in individual provinces. In the early 1790s, secret societies of the so-called Hungarian Jacobins, led by I. Martinovic, arose in Hungary, Croatia and Transylvania. The draft constitution they drew up for Hungary provided for the proclamation of a constitutional parliamentary monarchy, solving the national problem by transforming Hungary into a federation of three self-governing provinces - Slavoniki, Illyricum and Wallachiki. In 1795, the Jacobin leaders were executed. The Napoleonic Wars contributed to the flourishing of agriculture in Hungary and the strengthening of the national economy; the country became the main supplier of agricultural products for the army and industry of Austria. As a result, until 1812, Hungarian landowners supported the Habsburgs, rejecting Napoleon I's proposal (1809) to grant Hungary independence. The measures taken by the Austrian government to overcome the financial crisis that erupted in 1811 provoked its conflict with the Hungarian nobility, and in 1812 the State Assembly was dissolved (until 1825).

In 1825, the liberal noble opposition spoke for the first time at the session of the State Assembly, which marked the beginning of the so-called era of reforms that preceded the Revolution of 1848-49 in Hungary. Opposition leader I. Szechenyi put forward a program for transforming absolutism into a limited monarchy. In the 1830s and 40s, the opposition achieved the adoption of laws on the redemption of peasant duties, on the support of trade and industry (1839), recognition of the Hungarian language as the state language (1843), and the right to hold public office for non-nobles. In the 1840s, representatives of the petty nobility and bourgeoisie emerged among the opposition, whose leader L. Kossuth came up with a radical program for the democratic reorganization of Hungary. 3.3.1848 Kossuth spoke at the State Assembly with a program of reforms. On March 3, the National Assembly demanded the appointment of a government responsible to it. The uprising that broke out in Pest on March 15 served as the beginning of the Revolution of 1848-49 in Hungary. On March 17, Emperor Ferdinand I (Hungarian King Ferdinand V) was forced to agree to the formation of a responsible government led by L. Battyany. On March 18, he issued a law abolishing serfdom. However, the declaration of autonomy for Croatia (adopted by the Croatian Sabor on June 5) was not recognized in Hungary. On April 11, the king authorized a new constitution, according to which the country was declared a constitutional monarchy with hereditary Habsburg power, while uncertainty arose in relations with the imperial government in the fields of finance, foreign affairs, the maintenance of the army and the status of national minorities. The invasion of the imperial troops led by the Croatian ban J. Jelacic on September 11, 1848 began the liberation war of Hungary against Austria and its allies. The Batthyany government, which resigned (September 15), was replaced by the Committee for the Defense of the Homeland, headed by Kossuth. The National Army he formed inflicted several defeats on the Habsburg troops. On October 3, the king introduced a state of siege in Hungary, and on October 8, the Committee for the Defense of the Motherland was proclaimed the highest executive body. The enthronement of Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) was regarded by the Hungarians as a violation of the order of succession to the throne. After the defeat suffered by the imperial troops on January 1, 1849, the revolutionary government evacuated from the capital, which was occupied by the imperial troops on January 5. On April 14, the State Assembly adopted the Declaration of Independence; The Habsburgs were declared deposed from the Hungarian throne. After the beginning of the intervention of Russian troops in May 1849, Hungary's military situation deteriorated sharply, and disagreements among its political leadership intensified. General A. Görgei, who received dictatorial powers on August 11, capitulated on August 13. In March 184, the Olomouc Constitution came into force: Hungary was divided into 5 governorships under the direct control of Austria. All power was concentrated in the hands of the governor-general, the comitat noble assemblies were dissolved, and the laws adopted in 1848-49 were repealed. German was declared the official language. A military-bureaucratic regime was established in Hungary, which aimed at the complete dissolution of Hungary into the empire.

Hungary as part of Austria-Hungary (1867-1918). In the 1860s, Franz Joseph was forced to make some concessions to Hungary: the Hungarian language was again recognized as the state language, the previous judicial system and committee meetings were restored. The result of a compromise between the parties was the Austro-Hungarian agreement of 1867, which created a dualist state - Austria-Hungary. Hungary, recognized as its sovereign part, received its own government responsible to the State Assembly; three ministries were imperial: foreign affairs, finance and naval; they obeyed only the emperor. Croatia, Slavonia and Transylvania, separated from it in 1849, were returned to Hungary. 8/6/1867 Franz Joseph was crowned with the crown of St. Stephen. The first government of Hungary was headed by Andrássy Gyula the Elder.

The political situation in Hungary at the end of the 19th century was determined by the relationship between three political parties: the ruling Deak party, the moderate Left Center party led by K. Tisza (as a result of their merger in 1875, the Liberal Party of Hungary was formed) and the Party of 1948 (later Independence Party), represented by supporters of Kossuth. Andrássy's cabinet carried out a number of reforms: justice, committee, electoral, school. The new government supported national industry and promoted the development of capitalist relations. The national policy of Andrássy and his successors caused mixed assessments. In 1868, the law on a single Hungarian nation was passed, which deprived all non-Hungarian peoples of national equality. The only exception was made for the Croats - the Hungarian-Croatian Agreement of 1868 gave them limited autonomy. In foreign policy, Andrássy, who became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary in 1871, focused on an alliance with Germany.

The creation of Austria-Hungary gave impetus to the development of the Hungarian economy. Economic growth was ensured mainly by the development of agriculture, the credit and banking system and railway construction. The orientation of the agricultural sector towards foreign markets contributed to a change in the structure of production and exports: from the sale of agricultural raw materials to the supply of processed products (primarily flour). By the end of the 1870s, the Hungarian flour milling industry had become a leading industry in the world. Agriculture and manufacturing industry used advanced technology for that time. The expansion of the domestic market led to the displacement of previously dominant foreign capital by Hungarian capital. Over 30 years, the number of Hungarian credit institutions increased 15 times, their capital - 10 times, and foreign capital accounted for less than 50% of the total money supply in banks. The construction of railroads, which began in earnest in the late 1860s, and the needs of agriculture for technology contributed to the beginning of industrialization. By 1914, national income had tripled at an average annual growth rate of 2.5%. The government pursued a protective policy towards national industry. Hungarian engineers and inventors (O. Blati, A. Mehvart, F. Dery, etc.) made a number of discoveries in the field of electrical engineering, casting, etc., which were used throughout the world. In 1872, Buda, Obuda and Pest were united into a single city - Budapest. In 1896, during the celebrations of the 1000th anniversary of the Hungarians finding their homeland, the first metro on the continent was opened in the capital.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the working class entered the political scene in Hungary. In 1868, the first socialist organization in Hungary was created - the General Workers' Union, in 1890 - the Social Democratic Party of Hungary (SDPV), which led the labor movement until the end of the 1st World War.

The crisis of the dualistic empire that emerged at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries provoked the adoption of tough measures: in Hungary, the government of I. Tisza (1903-05) dealt with popular unrest and suppressed the parliamentary opposition.

During World War I, the Hungarian government supported the ruling dynasty. However, failures at the front and the outbreak of the economic crisis led to a political crisis in Hungary: opposition parties began to demand the conclusion of a separate peace and the proclamation of an independent Hungarian state. In the context of the collapse of Austria-Hungary, on October 25, 1918, representatives of the Independence Party, the Radical Party and the SDPV created the Hungarian National Council under the leadership of M. Karolyi. The Council published an appeal demanding peace, democratic reforms, recognition of the right of nations to self-determination, etc. Károlyi's supporters seized all key buildings and government institutions in Budapest. The October Revolution of 1918 was called the “Asters Revolution”. On October 31, 1918, Károlyi was appointed prime minister (from January 11, 1919, interim president). On November 16, 1919, Hungary was proclaimed a republic.

Hungary in 1919-45. The government's negotiations with the Entente did not bring the expected results. On March 20, 1919, the Entente, through French representatives, presented Hungary with an ultimatum, according to which the Hungarian army was to withdraw beyond the new demarcation line. M. Károlyi assessed this as a threat to the occupation of Hungary by the Entente and rejected the ultimatum. At the same time, the government was losing popularity among workers who did not get it to quickly implement their demands. Having lost support in society, Károlyi resigned on March 21, 1919, and the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919 was proclaimed. After its fall during the offensive of Romanian troops on Budapest (August 1, 1919), the only political figure who controlled the army and enjoyed increasing popularity in society was M. Horthy. The Entente agreed to recognize the government, the composition of which was personally controlled by Horthy and his supporters. On 1 March 1920 Horthy was elected regent. On June 4, the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 was signed, under the terms of which Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and about 60% of its population. In the 1920s, Horthy relied on the governments of P. Teleki (1920-21) and I. Bethlen (1921-31). In 1921, an agreement was concluded with the Social Democrats - the so-called Bethlen-Peyer Pact. On the right flank, along with legal political parties and organizations, there were secret unions and societies (see “Etelköz Union”). The government sought to suppress both communists (see the article Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party) and right-wing extremists. The agrarian reform carried out by the Bethlen government in 1921, which provided landless farm workers with plots, did not solve the land problem, since it affected only 8% of arable land. Restrictive qualifications introduced in 1922 led to a significant reduction (by 750 thousand) in the number of voters; open voting was held in rural electoral districts. In the 1920s, in the difficult environment of the severance of established economic ties after the collapse of the empire, there was a gradual recovery of the Hungarian economy.

The global economic crisis, which broke out in 1929 and also affected Hungary, led to political changes. In 1932, D. Gömbös, who represented right-wing circles and fascist elements of the army, was appointed head of the government (until 1936). Gömbös came up with a program for the revival of the Hungarian nation, which included a revision of the borders. Italy and Germany became Hungary's foreign policy allies. The government of K. Daranyi (1936-38) also relied on cooperation with Germany in foreign economic relations. In 1936-38, events in the international arena contributed to strengthening the positions of Hungarian fascist organizations. The final turn of Hungary towards Nazi Germany occurred during the premiership of B. Imredi (1938-39). In 1939, Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, and on November 20, 1940, the Three Power Pact of 1940. In April 1941, Hungarian troops took part in the German attack on Yugoslavia. 27.6.1941 Hungary declared war on the USSR. Hungarian troops took part in military operations on the territory of the USSR, and the country's resources served the economic and military needs of Germany. Since 1943, the Hungarian government has tried to establish contacts with Great Britain and the United States. Horthy and Prime Minister M. Kallai (1942-1944) were ready for the immediate capitulation of Hungary and its transition to the side of the anti-Hitler coalition, subject to the preservation of territorial integrity and the existing regime. In March 1944, the territory of Hungary was occupied by German troops; The Resistance Movement developed in the country. In April 1944, the Hungarian Council was formed in London from representatives of the democratic emigration led by M. Karolyi, but it had virtually no contacts with Hungary and did not influence events. In October 1944, the Hungarian official delegation (G. Farago's mission) negotiated an armistice in Moscow; on October 11, a secret agreement was signed, according to which Hungary renounced all territorial acquisitions after 1938 and declared war on Germany. On October 15, Horthy resigned as regent, appointing as prime minister (October 16) the head of the Nilashist party, F. Szalashi, who established a dictatorial regime. Organizing the anti-fascist struggle of the Hungarian people, the communists initiated the creation of the Hungarian Front (May 1944) and the Hungarian National Independence Front (HNFF; December 1944), which replaced it. In September 1944, Soviet troops entered Hungarian territory. On the initiative of the Communist Party, which emerged from underground, the Provisional National Assembly met in Debrecen on December 21, 1944; On December 22, a coalition Provisional National Government was formed. On January 20, 1945, an armistice agreement was signed in Moscow between Hungary and the powers of the anti-Hitler coalition. It obliged Hungary to take part in the war against Germany, establish borders in accordance with the situation on December 31, 1937, dissolve all pro-Hitler and fascist organizations, and partially compensate for the losses caused by it during the war. On February 13, 1945, Budapest was liberated by the Red Army, and on April 4, 1945, the entire territory of the country was liberated.

Hungary in the 2nd half of the 20th - early 21st centuries. On November 4, 1945, democratic elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the Party of Small Farmers received 57% of the votes, and Social Democrats and Communists received 17% each. The president of the country was the chairman of the PMA, Z. Tildi, and the prime minister of the coalition government was one of the leaders of the PMA, F. Nagy. The agrarian reform of 1945 destroyed large landowners and kulak landownership. 1.2.1946 Hungary was proclaimed a republic. The Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 established Hungary's modern borders. The active work of the communists, who organized the Left Bloc within the framework of the VNFN and achieved the adoption by the National Assembly of the 3-year economic plan they developed, the split of the PMSKH and its loss of the majority in the State Assembly in the elections of August 31, 1947 ensured the leading position of the Communist Party in power. In 1947-48, the communists ousted representatives of other parties from the government. Real power passed into the hands of the General Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee M. Rakosi and other communist leaders. A policy was pursued of nationalization of banks and industry, collectivization of agriculture. On August 18, 1949, a new constitution was adopted and Hungary was proclaimed a people's republic. In 1949, Hungary became a member of the CMEA, and in 1955 - the Warsaw Pact Organization.

The construction of Soviet-style socialism in Hungary was accompanied by distortions in economic planning, forced collectivization, persecution of ideological opponents, and the formation of the personality cult of M. Rakosi. General dissatisfaction with government policies and bureaucracy grew. The process of “de-Stalinization”, which developed after 1953, took place in an atmosphere of confrontation between Rakosi and the supporter of economic and political reforms I. Nagy (head of government in 1953-55). Increasing internal contradictions in Hungary led to the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, which was suppressed with the help of Soviet troops. A government led by J. Kadar came to power. In 1960-63, there was some democratization of society and government, and the country embarked on the path of economic reforms. In 1977-78, the Kadar government carried out a number of reforms to introduce market principles in the economy and to stimulate industries producing export products.

Political changes that have taken place since the mid-1980s in the USSR have influenced the development of Hungary. In 1988, J. Kadar was forced to resign. Many political parties resumed their activities or were founded: the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), the Union of Free Democrats, the Union of Young Democrats, the PMA, the SDPV, etc. In 1989, multipartyism was formalized by law and democratic elections were held. On October 23, 1989, the Hungarian Republic was proclaimed. Its first prime minister was J. Antall (1990-93), its president was A. Gönz (1990-2000). In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary. In 1993-96, Hungary signed agreements with Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine on the inviolability of existing borders. In 1994, Hungary gave permission for the deployment of NATO troops on its territory, in 1999 it joined NATO, and in 2004 - the EU.

Lit.: Acsаdy I. Magyarorszag harom részre oszlanаsak tôrténete. 1526-1608. Bdpst, 1897. Kot. 5; History of Hungary: In 3 vols. M., 1971-1972; Bak J. Königtum und Stände in Ungarn im 14-16. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden, 1973; Ma-gyarorszâg torténete. Bdpst, 1976-1989. Kot. 1-10; Gonda 1., Niederhauser E. A Habsburgok. Egy europai jelenség. Bdpst, 1977; Kann R. A. Geschichte des Habsburgerreiches: 1526-1918. W.u.a., 1977; Ujvàri Zs. Nagy két csâszâr birodalmi közöt. Bdpst, 1984; Csizmadia A., Kovacs K., Astalos L. History of the Hungarian state and law. M., 1986; A Brief History of Hungary / Ed. T. M. Islamova. M., 1991; Hoensch J. K. A history of modern Hungary, 1867-1994. 2nd ed. L., 1996; Lendvai P. Die Ungarn. Münch., 1999; Kontler L. History of Hungary. Millennium in the center of Europe. M., 2002.

J. Makkai, K. Toth, E. Istvanovich, B. Kulcsar (archaeology); K. T. Medvedeva.

Farm

Hungary is an industrial-agrarian country with an average level of economic development. The GDP volume is 149.3 billion dollars (at purchasing power parity, 2004), per capita 14.9 thousand dollars (about 1/2 the level of the 4 leading EU countries). Human Development Index 0.862 (2003; 35th among 177 countries in the world).

Among the former socialist countries of Europe, the economy of Hungary (along with the Czech Republic) is developing most successfully. In 2005, GDP growth was 4.1%, the inflation rate was 3.6%. In 1999, the privatization of economic sectors was largely completed. In the private sector of the economy at the beginning of the 21st century, over 80% of GDP is created (in 1990 - 10%). As part of the so-called residual privatization, the remaining state-owned enterprises are gradually transferred to private ownership. The share of foreign capital in the ownership structure of the country's economy reaches 30%. Of the 200 largest enterprises, about 160 are partially or fully foreign owned; every tenth Hungarian company has a foreign partner, co-founder or owner.

In the structure of GDP, the service sector accounts for 65.3%, industry and construction - 31.4%, agriculture and forestry - 3.3% (2004).

Industry. Since 2002, there has been a steady trend of industrial growth; in 2005, production volume increased by 7.3%. Hungarian industry is highly involved in the international division of labor: over 1/2 (53%, 2005) of production is exported. Large enterprises (employing over 300 people) export 60-80% of their production volume. The concentration of production is increasing, especially in mechanical engineering, energy and petrochemicals; Large enterprises account for about 2/3 of industrial production. About 2/3 of the products of Hungarian industry (by value) are produced by foreign-owned enterprises.

Over the years of reforms, noticeable changes have occurred in the sectoral structure of industry. The share of extractive industries in the gross value of industrial output in 1985-2005 decreased from 6.9% to 0.4%, the petrochemical industry - from 19.2% to 18.9%, the food industry - from 20.0% to 11.4%, leather, footwear and textile industries - from 8.0% to 2.1%; the share of the electrical and electronics industry increased (from 7.5% to 28.2%), transport engineering (from 5.2% to 14.3%). The most important industries (mid-2000s): mechanical engineering (including electrical and electronic industries, transport engineering), chemical (including petrochemical and chemical-pharmaceutical), food.

In the structure of the fuel and energy balance of Hungary, oil and petroleum products account for 33.2%, natural gas - 37.1%, coal and lignites - 14.3%, nuclear energy - 12.6%, hydropower and other sources - 2.8 % (2003). Up to 70% of energy resources are imported, mainly from Russia (oil, gas, coal, nuclear fuel). Oil production (in Nagylengyel, Zala region, and Alfold) decreased from 2 million tons in 1985 to 860 thousand tons in 2005, natural gas (Hajduszoboszlo and other areas of Alfold) - from 7.1 billion m 3 to 3.0 billion m 3 respectively. Oil refining is carried out at two refineries: Danube (Sazhalombatta) and Tisza (Tisaujvaros) with a total capacity of 10 million tons per year. The largest company engaged in exploration, production, transportation, storage, distribution and marketing of oil and gas is MOL, which is the only enterprise in Hungary transporting imported hydrocarbons (operates a network of main oil and gas pipelines).

MOL owns a number of oil refining and petrochemical enterprises (including outside the country), and has a network of modern gas stations (over 440 in Hungary, Slovakia and Romania). Coal production (hard, brown and lignite) 13.2 million tons (2003).

The installed capacity of power plants is 7530 MW (2003). Electricity production 34.3 billion kWh; exports amounted to 8.3 billion kWh, imports - 12.6 billion kWh. The share of thermal power plants in electricity production is 66.5% (the largest thermal power plants "Matra", "Dunamenti", "Vertes" operate on coal; "Sazhalombatta" - on fuel oil), nuclear power plants (the Paks nuclear power plant operates on the Danube, near the city of Paks, with a capacity 3.0 MW) - 32.1%, hydroelectric power plants - 0.6%, others - about 0.8%.

After the recession of the late 1990s, production in the ferrous metallurgy industry is gradually stabilizing (working mainly on imported raw materials and ferrous metal scrap). Rolled steel production 2.0 million tons (2004). The main metallurgical plants are in Dunaujváros (“Dunaferr”), Diosgyőr - Miskolc region (“DAM Stell”) and Özd. Aluminum production of 43 thousand tons (2005) is carried out at the MAL company plants in Ajk and Inot, the production of copper and copper alloys is carried out at the Csepel plant (Budapest).

The most important and rapidly developing branch of mechanical engineering is the electrical and electronics industry. Most of the enterprises in the industry belong to large foreign companies: Nokia, Siemens - production of mobile phones; "Philips" - sound reproducing equipment; "Electrolux", "Samsung", "Flectronics" - household electrical appliances; General Electric - light sources, etc. Main production centers: the Budapest metropolitan area, as well as Győr, Miskolc, Debrecen, Székesfehérvár.

The rapid development of transport engineering is associated with the creation in Hungary of a number of enterprises of large foreign automobile companies. The total amount of foreign investment in the development of the Hungarian automotive industry is over $2 billion (2004). The assembly of passenger cars is carried out by Suzuki (93 thousand units in 2004, at the Esztergom plant) and Volkswagen (25 thousand units, at the Győr plant). The production of Opel cars was discontinued in 1999; the Szentgothard plant, which assembled them, switched to manufacturing gearboxes and engine blocks. The Ford enterprises (in Székesfehérvár) were initially created as suppliers of components, components and assemblies for automobiles. The Hungarian automobile company RABA operates in the industry - it produces diesel engines, trucks and chassis at factories in Győr (it also assembles Ikarus buses in small quantities in Budapest). The Hungarian company Ganz-MAVAG is a traditional manufacturer of railway equipment (locomotives, cars, etc.; factories are in Budapest).

The key branch of the chemical industry is the production of pharmaceuticals (40% of the value of sales of the chemical industry); enterprises of the companies "EGIS", "Gedeon Richter", "Chinoin" - in Budapest, Debrecen, etc. The petrochemical industry is developed, primarily the production of plastics (35% of the industry's sales value); large chemical plants - in Kazincbarcik (“BorsodChem”) and in Tiszaújváros.

Enterprises in other industries (woodworking, pulp and paper, light and food) are experiencing significant difficulties caused by the loss of traditional sales markets, strict EU environmental protection requirements, high electricity prices, rapidly growing wage costs, etc. While the overall significant growth of industrial production in the country in 2005, textile and clothing industry enterprises reduced production volumes by 11.2%, woodworking - by 4.6%, food industry - by 4.4%. Since the beginning of the 1990s, exports of products from these industries, including food industry products (canned meat, vegetable and fruit, Hungarian salami, etc.), have decreased significantly.

Agriculture has been experiencing serious problems since the early 1990s. The hasty liquidation of agricultural cooperatives, omissions in the implementation of land reform, insufficient level of financing for the industry, etc. led to a significant decrease in production volumes. Since the mid-1990s, the share of agricultural products in the country's GDP has decreased significantly (from 17.7% in 1993 to 3.3% in 2004); the volume of exports of agricultural products, the area of ​​cultivated land, the number of livestock, etc., have decreased. The modern agricultural policy of the Hungarian government is aimed at strengthening the role of agriculture in the country's economy, especially in traditional sectors - the production of grain, meat, vegetables, fruits and wines.

Agricultural land occupies over 6.4 million hectares (2002), or over 64% of the country’s area, of which over 78% (or about 1/2 of the country’s area) is arable land, over 5% is in orchards and vineyards, about 17 % - to natural feeding grounds. The area of ​​irrigated land is over 210 thousand hectares.

The main crops of Hungarian agriculture are corn and wheat. The main growing areas for corn are the south and east of Alfeld, as well as the Danube Valley, south of Budapest. Wheat is grown everywhere, the main crops being grown on the chernozem soils of the Alföld. Grain harvest over 16.7 million tons in 2004 (including corn 8.5 million tons, wheat 6.0 million tons, barley 1.4 million tons, hybrid of wheat and rye 0.6 million tons, oats 0.2 million tons); harvesting corn of milky-waxy ripeness 450 thousand tons of grain. Forage crops are grown, including alfalfa and corn for green mass. Main industrial crops (collection): sugar beets (2,650 thousand tons), sunflower (1,119 thousand tons of seeds), rapeseed (180 thousand tons of seeds). Harvesting of other agricultural crops (thousand tons, 2004): potatoes 650, watermelons 230, tomatoes 200, cabbage 160. Hungarian red pepper (paprika), onions grown in the vicinity of the city of Mako (in the south of Alföld), Vecses cabbage, Geddelley are famous for their taste. tomatoes, Erken asparagus, etc. Viticulture is developed (grape harvest 650 thousand tons in 2004). Hungary is known for the quality of its white (tokaj, badacsony, etc.) and red (ox blood, etc.) wines. Fruit growing is developed everywhere (apples, apricots, peaches, plums, pears, cherries, etc.).

Livestock farming provides over 60% of agricultural income. The main branch of livestock farming is pig farming (developed everywhere). The main areas for cattle breeding are the less arid areas of the Middle Hungarian Mountains and Dunantul, as well as the area around Budapest. Poultry farming has been developed, including the production of broilers. Livestock (million heads, 2004): pigs - over 4, cattle - 0.7, poultry (chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese) - 52. The needs of the domestic market are also met by sheep breeding and fish farming in artificial reservoirs.

Services sector. The largest and most dynamic sector of the economy; the most important sectors: banking and credit system and insurance services (21.7% of GDP in 2003), trade and consumer services (12.8%), transport and communications (9.1%), education, healthcare (5.4%) , administrative services, including defense (5.2%), etc. The banking and credit system and the insurance services sector, information infrastructure, telecommunications and communications are developing at a rapid pace.

By the end of the 1990s, the country’s modern financial system was formed: state financial authorities (tax authorities, supervision of financial organizations, the Hungarian State Treasury, etc.); a set of banking and credit institutions; organizations providing services for non-state management of financial markets (stock and commodity exchanges, brokerage and dealer firms, and so on); insurance companies, pension funds, etc. By the beginning of 1998, the privatization of Hungarian banks was almost completed. The Hungarian National Bank (MNB; the country's central bank), which carries out emission and credit policies and general control over the financial market, remains under the control of the state. The system of credit institutions in Hungary consists of 38 commercial banks (2003; 90.3% of the volume of all financial and credit transactions), 193 savings cooperatives (5.6%), 9 specialized financial institutions (3.6%) and 4 housing savings banks (0.5%). The five leading commercial banks (OTR, K&N Bank, CIB, Raiffeisen, Erste) collectively own almost 60% of the assets of the country's banking system. Over 60% of banking assets belong to foreign capital.

Since the late 1990s, retail trade turnover has been constantly expanding ($26.7 billion in 2004). This is facilitated by the growth of household incomes, the emergence of new trade formats (hypermarkets, shopping centers) and improved quality of service. Structure of trade turnover (2004): food and drinks - 33.8%, vehicles, spare parts and fuel for them - 28.4%, furniture and household appliances - 16.0%, cultural and educational goods - 9.5%, other goods - 12.3%.

The tourism sector is one of the most dynamically growing sectors of the economy (about 10% of GDP; about 300 thousand employed, or about 7% of the country’s economically active population). Hungary has a developed tourism infrastructure (hotels, catering places, beach, health and entertainment complexes, swimming pools, hunting lodges, fishing spots, etc.); annually receives over 15 million foreign tourists (17.5 million people in 10 months of 2005).

Transport. Hungary has a convenient transport and geographical location in the center of Europe and a well-developed transport communications network. Of the total volume of domestic cargo transportation (36.4 billion t-km in 2004), road transport accounted for 56.6%, railway - 24.4%, pipeline - 14.9%, water transport - 3.9%, other - 0 .2%. International and transit (through the territory of Hungary) transportation accounted for 62.3% of all cargo transportation.

The total length of roads is 159.6 thousand km (2002), including 70.1 thousand km of paved roads (including 590 km of expressways). The length of the railways is 7,937 thousand km (2004), of which 7,682 km are of standard European gauge (2,628 km are electrified); inland waterways 1622 km (2004), mainly along the Danube. The most important river ports on the Danube: Budapest, Dunaujváros, Bahia, Mohács, etc. The length of main pipelines is 5,722 km (2004), including gas pipelines 4,397 km, oil pipelines 990 km, oil product pipelines 335 km. The following main gas pipelines pass through the territory of Hungary: “Brotherhood” (from Russia through Ukraine) and “Baumgartner-Győr” (from Austria); oil pipelines: Druzhba-I (from Russia through Ukraine), Druzhba-II (from Russia through Ukraine and Slovakia) and Adria (from Croatia). Ferihegy International Airport, near Budapest. The leading national airline is Malev.

Foreign economic relations. The Hungarian economy is characterized by a high degree of openness and participation in the international division of labor. The foreign trade balance has been chronically passive (since 1992). The volume of foreign trade turnover is 127.3 billion dollars (2005), including exports of 61.9 billion dollars, imports of 65.4 billion dollars. Over 70% of foreign trade turnover falls on EU countries. The structure of commodity exports is dominated by machinery and equipment, mainly products with a high degree of added value (61.0% of the export value in 2005; communications equipment, sound recording and reproducing equipment, automated data processing systems, electrical appliances for household and industrial purposes, etc. ), as well as other industrial products (28.0%); food products and drinks accounted for 6.1% of the value of exports, various types of raw materials - 2.1%, electricity and fuel - 2.7%. The main importers of goods from Hungary (% of value, 2005): Germany (29.1), Austria (6.0), Italy (5.4), France (4.8), Great Britain (4.7). The most important import items (% of value, 2005): machinery and equipment (50.5), other industrial products (33.5), fuel and electricity (10.2); food products accounted for 4.0% of the value of imports, various types of raw materials - 1.8%. Main suppliers of goods in Hungary (% of value): Germany (27.3), Russia (7.4, mainly energy), Austria (6.7), China (5.5), Italy (4.9), France (4.7).

The favorable business climate attracts foreign capital to Hungary. In terms of the amount of accumulated foreign direct investment ($53.0 billion, end 2004), Hungary ranks second after Poland among Eastern European countries.

Lit.: Back to a market economy. Bdpst, 1999; Tiusanen T. Hungary in the 1990’s: business opportunities in a successful transitional economy. Lappeenranta, 1999; Business Hungary: Economy and relations with Russia. M., 2002-2005-. T. 1-7.

A. V. Drynochkin.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) of Hungary consist of the Hungarian Army (HA) - 32.3 thousand people and border troops - 14 thousand people (2004), which are part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

VA includes the Ground Forces (ground forces; 18 thousand people) and the Air Force (7.5 thousand people); it also includes separate commands, institutions and units of central subordination (about 6.8 thousand people). Military annual budget $1.7 billion (2004). The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president of the country. General management of the Armed Forces is carried out by the Minister of Defense (civilian), operational management is carried out by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. After Hungary joined NATO (1999) in 2003, the country’s leadership developed a new program for reforming the armed forces to NATO standards, designed for the period until 2013.

The main directions of military reform have been identified: improving the command and control system of the Armed Forces, optimizing their structure, combat strength and strength, increasing the combat capabilities of troops (forces), reforming the system of recruiting and training military personnel. The ground forces are the main type of armed forces, they consist of 3 separate brigades (2 infantry and 1 mechanized), 2 separate battalions (reconnaissance and special purpose), a training center, other units and units of combat and logistics support. The ground forces are armed with: about 700 battle tanks (T-72, T-55); 745 field artillery guns, mortars and MLRS (towed 122 mm howitzers and 152 mm D-20 howitzer guns; 122 mm Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers; BM-21 MLRS); 400 PU ATGM; about 1,400 armored combat vehicles and armored personnel carriers; about 350 MANPADS (Strela, Igla, Mistral).

The Air Force structurally includes 3 air bases, an air defense brigade and 5 regiments. They include 3 squadrons of combat aircraft, 2 squadrons of auxiliary aircraft, 5 helicopter squadrons, 2 anti-aircraft missile divisions. Air Force armament: 100 combat aircraft (MiG-29 and MiG-21), including 60 in reserve; 13 auxiliary aircraft; 110 helicopters (Mi-24, Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-17), including 46 combat ones; 44 PU medium-range missiles. Recruitment of the Armed Forces is carried out on a mixed principle: through the conscription of those liable for military service in accordance with the Law on Universal Military Service, as well as the recruitment of military personnel on a contract basis. The total duration of conscription military service is 9 months. Training of officers for the Armed Forces is carried out in secondary and higher schools and academies in Hungary and abroad, sergeants - in training units, non-commissioned officers and warrant officers - in special schools.

V.V. Gorbachev.

Healthcare

In Hungary, per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 316 doctors, 66 general practitioners, 873 paramedical personnel, 46 dentists, 50 pharmacists; hospital beds - 710, of which 77% are in the public sector, 9.5% in university clinics (2004). Expenditures on health care account for 7.8% of GDP (budget financing - 75%, private sector - 29.8%) (2002). The health care system is built on the district principle, based on compulsory health insurance and contracts. Primary health care is provided by general practitioners; secondary - district clinics, as well as municipal clinics, dispensaries and hospitals. The public hospital sector provides care for acute and chronic diseases, specialized care, and rehabilitation. The incidence rate per 100 thousand inhabitants is: tuberculosis - 24.7 cases, viral hepatitis - 7.6, cancer - 771.2 (including breast cancer - 153.6), mental illness - 391.1 cases (2003). The main causes of death in the adult population are cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, suicide, and injuries. Resorts: Bala tonfüred, Budapest, Büksek, Kekesztö, Parad, Harkany, Heviz, Siófok, etc.

V. S. Nechaev.

Sport

The National Olympic Committee was created in 1895. At the Olympic Games of 1896-1912, Hungary (part of Austria-Hungary) competed as a separate team. A. Hajos in 1896 (Athens) won the first Olympic gold medal in the history of swimming (100 m freestyle, also won the 1200 m distance). Most of the other major international victories in the years 1896-1936 were won by Hungarian athletes in fencing, swimming and boxing competitions.

In 1945, the National Sports Committee and the Sports Center of the Hungarian Democratic Youth Union (MADIS) were created. In 1951, the Committee for Physical Education and Sports was formed. At the beginning of the 1950s, the number of sports facilities increased significantly (before the start of World War 2 - 3655, in 1954 - 9655). At the end of the 1970s, there were over 4 thousand sports societies and more than 12 thousand sports sections; over 1 million people were engaged in them. The most popular sports: basketball, boxing, wrestling, water polo, volleyball, handball, kayaking and canoeing, athletics, table tennis, artistic gymnastics, weightlifting, fencing, football, chess. The Budapest Institute of Physical Culture trains teachers and trainers (about 1 thousand people study). From 1945 to 2004, about 800 Hungarian athletes won the titles of world, European and Olympic champions. In total, at the Olympic Games (1896-2004) Hungarian athletes won 156 gold, 136 silver, 157 bronze medals, at the Olympic Winter Games (1924-2002): 2 silver, 4 bronze medals.

Among the most famous athletes: L. Papp (the first 3-time Olympic champion in the history of boxing), J. Varga (2-time world champion and Olympic champion in classical wrestling), A. Balzo (3-time Olympic champion in modern pentathlon) , K. Takacs (2-time Olympic champion in shooting), V. Barna, F. Shido, G. Farkas (multiple world champions in table tennis), I. Feldi (Olympic, world and European champion in weightlifting) , I. Elek, A. Gerevich, R. Karpaty, P. Kovacs, D. Kulchar (multiple Olympic champions in fencing), 3. Magyar (Olympic champion in artistic gymnastics), K. Egerszegi (multiple Olympic champion in swimming).

The Hungarian Football Association (founded in 1901) is one of the oldest national sports organizations in FIFA (since 1906). The Hungarian football team twice took 2nd place at the World Championships (1938 and 1954), and became the champion of the Olympic Games 3 times (1952, 1964, 1968). The best football players in the history of Hungarian football are F. Puskás (the legendary scorer of world football), F. Albert, D. Grosic, I. Bozhik, N. Hidegkuti, K. Mesay, K. Sándor, F. Bene and others.

In 1836 and 1856, the first chess clubs were founded in Buda. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the greatest successes were achieved by I. Löwenthal, I. Kolisch, R. Haruzek, I. Gunsberg (played a world championship match with W. Steinitz in 1890/91). Since 1896, Budapest has hosted major international chess tournaments. At the beginning of the 20th century, G. Maroczy was considered a contender for the world championship; in the mid-1930s, A. Lilienthal successfully competed. The Hungarian national team is one of the main contenders for victory in the World Chess Olympiads (1927, 1928, 1936; 1978 - 1st place; 1970, 1972, 1980 - 2nd) among men's teams and the winner of these competitions (1988, 1990) among women's teams. The strongest grandmasters and contenders for the world championship: L. Portisch, A. Adorian, 3. Riebli, D. Sachs, L. Szabo. The Polgar sisters achieved unique successes: Zsuzsa - world chess champion (1995-99), Judit - participant in the men's world championship tournament (2005, Argentina), Sofia - winner of a number of men's competitions.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Since the late 1990s, the general management of educational institutions has been entrusted to local governments. The Ministry of Education determines the general criteria for the implementation of the educational process and the requirements for organizing final exams. The main regulatory documents are the laws: “On local government” (1990, amendments 2001), “On public education” (1993, amendments 1996, 1999, 2003), “On professional training” (1993), “On higher education” (amendments 1996, 1999, 2003), “On Education for Adults” (2001), as well as the National Educational Program adopted in 1998. The education system includes state and non-state educational institutions: preschool - for children 3-6 years old, basic 12-year school, general education (classical) gymnasiums (4 years of study), 3-4-year secondary vocational schools (based on the basic school), vocational schools and universities. Education is compulsory and free for children aged 6 to 18 years. In the 2003/04 academic year, 80% of children attended preschool institutions, 99% attended primary schools, and 92% attended secondary schools. A special type of educational institutions are art schools (free attendance), preparing students for further professional training. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 99.3% (2004). Adult education is carried out in evening classes or through correspondence courses established in basic secondary schools, vocational schools and universities. The number of schools providing adult education is small. A new type of vocational education institutions are regional centers for human resource development and training (created since the mid-1990s).

The higher education system includes universities, academies, institutes and colleges with university status. In 2004, there were 18 public universities, 5 church-run universities, 1 private university, 12 public, 21 church-run and 9 private colleges. The largest universities: in Budapest - E. Loranda (since 1635), J. F. Semmelweis Medical University (1769), technology and economics (1782; modern name since 2000), economic sciences and public administration (2003), theater and cinema (since 1865), graphics and design (1880), applied sciences named after F. Szechenyi (1968); universities: in Pec (1367), Debrecen (since 1538), Miskolc (1735), Szeged (since 1872), etc.; Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts in Budapest (1871), etc.

The leading scientific institutions are the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1825) and the F. Szechenyi Academy of Literature and Arts (until 1992, part of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) (both in Budapest).

Libraries: in Budapest - the National Library named after F. Széchenyi (1802), the libraries of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1826), the Hungarian Parliament (1870), as well as libraries of universities, museums, etc. The main museums: in Budapest - the Hungarian National Museum, the Museum of Natural History history (1802), Ethnographic Museum (1872), Museum of Fine Arts (1896), Hungarian National Gallery (1957); a museum in the city of Székesfehérvár (1873), has a rich collection of antique exhibits from the period of the Roman Empire; a museum in the city of Miskolc (1899), famous for one of the best collections of exhibits of Scythian culture and objects of the Bronze Age; Museum in Szolnok (1933), has a rich collection of archaeological exhibits.

Mass media

10 national and 24 local newspapers are published (2005). Foreign media holdings play a significant role. Foreign investors own 7 national and all local publications, of which 10 newspapers belong to the Axel Springer-Verlag concern. The largest daily newspaper “Népszabadsâg” (since 1942) is published by the German publishing concern “Bertelsmann”, the newspaper “Magyar Hirlap” (since 1968) is published by the Swiss concern “Rengier”. Other publications are the newspapers “Magyar Nemzet” (since 1945), “Népszava” (since 1877), “Heti Vilâggazdasâg”; weekly "168 ora". Broadcasting since 1925. State radio stations are Magyar Radio and Radio Budapest. Private radio stations - Danubius Radio, Slager Radio, Juventus Radio. Regular television broadcasts since 1958. The state television company Magyar TV broadcasts on 2 channels. State satellite channel - “Duna TV”. Private TV channels “TV-2”, “RTL Klub”. Hungarian telegraph agency “Magyar Tâvirati Iroda - MTI” (1880).

Literature

The literature of Hungary in the Middle Ages was represented by handwritten Latin-language monuments: chronicles, including the anonymous “Acts of the Hungarians” (about 1284); lives, legends; they contained fragments in Hungarian. The “Funeral Oration” (late 12th century) and the “Ancient Hungarian Lament of Mary” (13th century), which are considered the first examples of national literature, have been preserved in the form of such inserts. In the 15th century, Renaissance ideas penetrated Hungary and humanistic literature emerged. J. Pannonius is considered the first national poet, although he still wrote in Latin. The 16th century saw a rapid rise in vernacular literature; at the end of the century, G. Karoly completed a complete translation of the Bible, which became canonical. Most of the writers of this period were ministers of the church: prose writer and publisher G. Heltai, poet P. Bornemissa. The wandering singer S. Tinodi was the first to publish his works in book form. B. Balassa's lyrics combine the spirit of folklore with the traditions of European Renaissance poetry.

The Baroque style dominated the literature of Hungary in the 17th century. A prominent religious polemicist of the era is the leader of the Hungarian Counter-Reformation, Archbishop of Esztergom P. Pazman; the most significant poet is M. Zrinyi, author of the epic poem “The Sziget Disaster” (1651). In the poetry of I. Gyöngyösy, the influence of mannerism is noticeable. At the beginning of the 18th century, at the height of the national liberation struggle against Austria, folk songs of patriotic content (the so-called songs of the Kuruts) flourished. The Memoirs of Prince Ferenc II Rakoczi are of significant interest. In the work of the prose writer K. Mikes, primarily in “Letters from Turkey” (published in 1794), the features of the Rococo style were implemented. An important contribution to the renewal of Hungarian prose (the rejection of baroque rhetoric) was made by F. Faludi.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century, D. Beshchenyi and his associates established the style of classicism in literature, creatively rethinking the experience of the French enlighteners. At the beginning of the 19th century, the poet and publicist F. Kazinczy led the movement for the creation of a Hungarian literary language. Within the framework of the classic canon, the historical drama “Bank Ban” by J. Katona (created in 1815); in folklore traditions - the poem “Mati Ludash” by M. Fazekas (1804). Both trends were successfully combined in his poetry by M. Chokonai-Vitez, whose work was not limited to the framework of educational aesthetics and anticipated the poetic innovations of the 20th century.

In the 1820-30s, Hungarian literature developed in line with romanticism. The poets D. Berzheni, S. and K. Kisfaludi, F. Kölçei still combine a romantic picture of the world with classicist poetics. The work of the poet and playwright M. Vörösmarty was entirely in line with romanticism. In an atmosphere of increasing social activity, a socially critical novel appeared (J. Eötvös). The pinnacle of the development of literature of this period was the revolutionary lyrics of S. Petőfi, who combined romantic poetics with democratic ideas and the spirit of the people. Literary criticism is taking shape; its leading representatives are J. Baiza and J. Erdelyi, who substantiated the principle of nationality in literature. After the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-49, when hope for gaining national independence was lost, the so-called folk-national school emerged in literature with its apology for the unity of the nation and rejection of social criticism. Writers often depicted social life in an idyllic spirit (the work of M. Jókai, a prolific novelist widely known outside Hungary). A more pessimistic image of the era was recreated in the satirical social novels of K. Miksat. J. Wajda’s lyrics are dominated by motifs of dissatisfaction and despair. The harmonious combination of an optimistic attitude towards the world and the absence of illusions is characteristic of the deeply folk-in-spirit poetry of J. Aran. A special place in the literature of this period is occupied by the playwright I. Madach, who comprehends cardinal existential problems.

By the end of the 19th century, symbolism and naturalism penetrated into Hungary. Intensive renewal of literature, expressed in the rejection of traditional canons of poetics and substantive stereotypes, occurs at the beginning of the 20th century in the work of E. Adi and other writers who rallied around the magazine “Njugat” (1908-1941) - poets M. Babich, D. Kostolanyi , D. Juhasz, prose writers J. Moritz, M. Kafka, D. Krudy. Many directions of the literary avant-garde - expressionism (in Hungary it was called “activism”), surrealism, constructivism - are represented in the works of L. Kasszak. In the 1920-30s, a movement of “folk writers” arose in Hungary, recreating the life of the Hungarian peasantry in the manner of so-called sociography: poet and prose writer D. Ijes, prose writers L. Nemeth, P. Veres, P. Szabo, A. Tamasi, Y. Darvash and others. “Nyugat” during this period remains a tribune for supporters of novelty and democratic, leftist movements in literature; in his orbit were the poets L. Szabó, M. Fušt, M. Radnoti, prose writers F. Karinti, S. Marai, J. E. Tershansky, Lajos Nagy, T. Deri. The famous poet of this period, A. József, was also associated with “Njugat”.

A number of writers, forced to leave their homeland after the defeat of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, settled in the USSR: A. Gidas, B. Illes, J. Lengyel, etc. Marxist philosopher, aesthetician and literary critic D. Lukács worked here for a long time. After the creation of the Hungarian People's Republic in the late 1940s, many major writers were prevented from publishing; at the same time, talented representatives of the working and peasant environment entered literature, including poets F. Juhász, Laszlo Nagy, L. Benjamin, M. Vaci, I. Shimon, prose writers T. Cheres, E. Fejes, F. Shanta, I. Erken, L. Meshterhazi, D. Fekete, playwright I. Sharkadi. All of them began their journey under the sign of socialist realism, but gradually social-critical tendencies matured in their work. In the 1960-70s, many writers came or returned to literature who did not share socialist ideas and were previously on the periphery of the literary process: prose writers M. Szabo, J. Mandi, M. Mesey, I. Kertesz, G. Ottlik, M. Szentkuti, poets J. Pilinski, S. Veres, A. Nemes-Nagy. In the 1970s, young writers appeared who combined political opposition with aesthetics and embodied various forms of modernism and neo-avant-garde in their work: prose writers P. Esterhazy, P. Nadash, D. Shpiro, L. Krasznahorkai, poet D. Tandori and others. Democratic The transformations of the 1980-1990s opened the way for a variety of literary trends, mainly in the mainstream of postmodernism. The work of a number of writers is dominated by sharp social criticism, directed primarily against the ugly forms of post-socialist reality (Sh. Tar and others). In the literature of the 1990s, an important place was occupied by writers who were previously in external or internal emigration: prose writer D. Conrad, prose writer and essayist B. Hamvash, poet D. Petri.

Lit.: Klanitsai T., Sauder J., Szabolcsi M. A brief history of Hungarian literature. Budapest, 1962; A magyar irodalom torténete. Bdpst, 1964-1966. Kot. 1-6; Rossiyanov O.K. Realism in new Hungarian prose: 60-70s. XX century M., 1979; A magyar irodalom torténete, 1945-1975. Bdpst, 1981-1990. Kot. 1-4; Gusev Yu. P. Modern Hungarian literature in the context of the literatures of the socialist countries of Europe. M., 1987; Kulcsàr Szabô E. A magyar irodalom tôrténete, 1945-1991. Bdpst, 1993; Ùj magyar irodalmi lexicon. Bdpst, 1994. Kot. 1-3; Rossiyanov O.K. Two centuries of Hungarian literature. M., 1997; History of the literature of Eastern Europe after the Second World War: In 2 vols. M., 1995-2001.

Yu. P. Gusev.

Architecture and fine arts

On the territory of Hungary, Neolithic ceramics and sculpture, monuments of art of the Scythians and Celts, remains of Roman settlements (Aquinc, now within the boundaries of Budapest) with works of ancient Roman art, jewelry of the Huns and Avars, traces of settlements of the ancient Slavs have been preserved. The Hungarians, who arrived here in the 9th century, brought with them the traditions of artistic metalworking. The 10th-11th centuries include the “lower temples” in Feldebreu and Tihany with low vaults on massive pillars, the 11th and early 13th centuries include Romanesque basilicas with powerful western towers and promising portals, often with rich sculptural carvings (in Jak, Lebeni, Pec , Jambeque). The palace chapel in Esztergom (12th century) is distinguished by its sophistication and grace, influenced by French Gothic. A number of art monuments of the 11th century show the influence of Byzantium (fragments of frescoes in the “lower temple” in Feldebreu, etc.). The sculptural workshop of the city of Pecs flourished in the 12th century (reliefs of the church in Pecs). Decorative art of the 11th-12th centuries is represented by metal products, enamels, and fabrics. At the end of the 13th-15th centuries, Gothic churches were built (in Sopron, Pest, etc.) and castles with high walls and towers (Diosgyor, Visegrad). The sculpture highlights the bronze statues of the brothers Martin and György Kolozváry (2nd half of the 14th century).

Hungarian art reached its peak in the 2nd half of the 15th century. The attraction of Italian architects and artists to the country contributed to the spread of Renaissance culture. Royal residences with galleries, loggias, courtyards, terraces, decorated with statues and fountains were built in Buda and Visegrad. A secular spirit was also characteristic of church buildings (the Bakotz Chapel with order decoration at the cathedral in Esztergom, 1506-07; spacious churches with reticulated vaults in Nyirbator and Szeged). In painting, connections with late Gothic traditions were preserved; Renaissance tendencies were more fully manifested in sculpture (the so-called Bathory Madonna, etc.). The art of books (manuscripts with elegant Renaissance ornaments from the library of Matthias Corvinus) and decorative art (jewelry, glass, majolica) reached a high level.

The Turkish invasion (from 1526) interrupted and delayed for a long time the development of Hungarian culture. Many cities and monuments were destroyed. Since the end of the 17th century, Austrian influence and the Baroque style have been established in Hungarian art.

Palaces (in Rackev, Fertod, etc.) and churches (in Pest, Eger, Esztergom) are being built. In the mid-18th century, Baroque architecture flourished, taking on distinctive, intimate and restrained forms; In the work of the architect J. Fellner, a transition to classicism is planned. At the beginning of the 18th century, the painter A. Manjoki laid the foundation for the development of Hungarian portrait art.

Since the beginning of the 19th century, with the development of industry, widespread construction began in cities. In the architecture and sculpture of the 1st half of the 19th century, classicism prevailed (the building of the National Museum in Pest, 1837-47, architect M. Pollak; works of the sculptor I. Ferenczi). Romantic style was implemented in the work of F. Fesl, who combined Oriental and Byzantine motifs. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the characteristic features of the architectural appearance of Budapest emerged - wide highways and impressive buildings in various historical styles (neo-Gothic Parliament building, 1884-1904, architect I. Steindl; neo-baroque building of the Hungarian State Opera, 1875-84, architect M. Ibl).

In painting and sculpture of the 1st half of the 19th century, classicist features were combined with the tendencies of romanticism and Biedermeier (landscapes by K. Marko the Elder, landscapes, genre scenes and portraits by M. Barabash, portraits by I. Borsos, sculpture by I. Ferenczi). After the revolution of 1848-49, historical painting appeared, permeated with heroic-romantic pathos (V. Madaras, B. Székely, etc.). The creativity of M. Zichy played an important role in the development of graphics. The paintings of M. Munkacsi, S. Bihari, I. Revesz combine the features of romanticism and realism; a subtle lyrical intonation distinguishes the landscapes of L. Paal, close to the painting of the Barbizon school, as well as the works of L. Mednyanski and P. Signei-Mersche.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, buildings in the Art Nouveau style appeared (Museum of Applied Arts in Budapest, 1891-96, architect E. Lechner), monuments were erected (monument to the 1000th anniversary of Hungary in Budapest, 1894-1929). In the architecture of the 1st half of the 20th century, the ideas of functionalism, embodied in the work of F. Molnar, were important; The development of architectural rationalism was influenced by the buildings of B. Laity.

In the fine arts of the 1900s-10s, democratic national traditions were continued by artists of the so-called Nagybányi group, who used plein air painting techniques (S. Hollosy, K. Ferenczi, J. Torma, etc.), masters of the so-called Alföld school (J. Tornyai, I. Costa, I. Nagy, etc.), as well as A. Fenyes and others. In the work of T. Chontvari, folk-national motifs were combined with visionaryism, a symbolist attraction to antiquity and exoticism; the creator of exquisite decorative portraits J. Ripple-Ronai was close to the French artists of the Nabis group. The masters of the avant-garde association “Eight” (K. Kernstock, B. Por, R. Beren) turned to the means of expressionism in search of emotional acuity and effectiveness of art. In 1915-16, a group of anti-militarist artists close to Hungarian activism began their activities (B. Uitz, S. Bortnik, J. Nemes-Lampert, etc.). During the period of the Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919), masters of both groups participated in the design of folk festivals and created revolutionary posters.

After the establishment of the Horthy dictatorship in Hungary, many artists worked in exile (Uitz, Bortnik, L. Moholy-Nagy, etc.). The traditions of socially focused art were developed by the painters D. Derkovich (also a graphic artist), I. Dechy-Huber, sculptor L. Meszaros and others, the “Group of Socialist Artists” (created in 1934; A. E. Fenyo, A. Sugar and others .). The dominant trends in art were naturalism, academicism and neo-baroque. In sculpture, the works of F. Medgyessy and B. Ferenczi stood out, distinguished by their generalized forms and freedom of sculpting, in painting - exquisitely colorful canvases on peasant themes by V. Aba-Novak, landscapes and genre scenes by A. Bernat, I. Syonya and others.

The architecture of Hungary after 1945 was characterized by appropriate planning, a combination of simple, clear volumes, the use of frame-panel structures, and the widespread use of frescoes, mosaics, paintings, sgraffito, etc.; Small sculptures are used in urban development. Modern buildings are successfully combined with historical ensembles. The reconstruction of cities, the improvement of old and the construction of new areas (in Budapest, etc.) were carried out. Postmodernist tendencies initially appeared in the reconstruction of the center of Pécs (residential buildings designed by S. Deveney, 1979-85), later they developed in the works of G. Bachmann, A. Kovacs, L. Rajk, ironically citing the motifs of constructivist and post-war neoclassical architecture. High-tech style distinguishes the projects of J. Fint, C. Virak, L. Zalavari of the 1990s - early 2000s.

In the development of fine art in Hungary in the 2nd half of the 20th century, masters of the older generation played an important role (a group of Alföld artists; sculptors P. Patsai, S. Mikus, etc.). Since the late 1940s, easel and monumental painting on historical themes has become widespread; significant works of monumental and decorative art were created (the Liberation Monument on Mount Gellert in Budapest, 1947, J. Kisfaludi-Strobl, etc.). In the art of the late 1960s - early 1970s, interest in abstract and complex expressive solutions increased (painting by F. Martin, T. Durai, F. Szalai, J. Barczai, sculpture by I. Somogyi, T. Wilt; painting and graphics B. Condor, A. Wurtz), sometimes marked by features of surrealism (painting by T. Chernusha, sculpture by I. Varga, graphics by A. Grosch, D. Hinz). E. Benedek and I. Machai use hyperrealism techniques in their work. In the 1960-80s, great success was achieved in easel and monumental sculpture, imbued with heroic-dramatic pathos (E. Kerenyi, M. Borshosh, I. Kiss, J. Koniorczyk, etc.). In the decorative and applied arts of the 2nd half of the 20th century, modern forms are tactfully combined with folk traditions (ceramics by M. Kovacs and I. Gador, tapestries by D. Hinz, G. Solti, M. Selvitski, E. Fota, L. Geicher, etc. .; works by designer L. Finta, etc.). At the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, pop art (sculptor Zh. Iovanovic), conceptual art (T. Szentjobi, P. Turk), and happenings (G. Altörjai) developed.

Lit.: Hekler A. Ungarische Kunstgeschichte. V., 1937; Tikhomirov A. N. Art of Hungary IX-XX centuries. M., 1961; Kampis A. The history of art in Hungary. Bdpst, ; A magyarorszâgi müvészet tôrténete... / Ed. L. Fülep. Bdpst, 1970. Kot. 1-2; Rados J. Magyar épitészettôrténet. Bdpst, 1971; Svetlov I. E. Sculpture of People's Hungary. M., 1971; aka. From romanticism to symbolism: Essays on Polish and Hungarian painting of the 19th - early years. XX centuries St. Petersburg, 1997; Németh L. Modern Magyar muveszet. Bdpst, 1972; Feuerné T.R. Reneszansz épitészet Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1977; A Magyarorszâgi müvészet tôrténete. Bdpst, 1981. Kot. 1-2; Szilärdffy Z. Barokk szentképek Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1984; A historizmus müvészete Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1993; Hungarian art and literature of the 20th century. St. Petersburg, 2005.

Music

The appearance of the musical culture of Hungary is largely determined by the specifics of Hungarian folklore (see the article Hungarians). With the adoption of Catholicism, Gregorian chant entered Hungary. From the 15th century, court music developed: the royal chapel in Buda was one of the best in Europe. In the 16th century, the first secular musical works with Hungarian texts appeared; along with historical songs and tales, they were published in the collections of S. Tinodi (1554) and B. Bakfark (1553, 1565). In the 17th and 18th centuries, chapels were created in the residences of Austro-Hungarian aristocrats; the orchestra of the Esterhazy princes was led by I. Haydn (1761 -1790). The formation of professional music took place within the framework of the Verbunkosh style (known since the end of the 18th century), which was developed in the works of virtuoso violinists and composers J. Bihari, J. Lavotta, A. Cermak, who led gypsy orchestras and theater troupes. The influence of the verbunkos style is already noticeable in the first Hungarian operas written in the 1st half of the 19th century (I. Ruzicka, A. Bartai, M. Rozsavöldi). F. Erkel created operas based on subjects from national history, of which “Laszlo Hunyadi” (1844) and “Bank Ban” (1861; both staged in Pest) continue to be staged on the world opera stage. The pianist and romantic composer I. Székely created several piano cycles, which laid the foundation for the so-called Hungarian Rhapsody. The pinnacle of Hungarian romantic music is the work of F. Liszt, one of the largest European composers of the 19th century, author of 19 “Hungarian Rhapsodies” and other works on a national theme. The operettas of F. Lehár and J. Kalman, written in the 1st quarter of the 20th century (including “The Queen of Csárdás”, staged in 1915 in Vienna), containing Hungarian song and dance elements, became widely known. At the end of the 19th century, the national performing school was glorified by violin virtuosos E. Remenyi and E. Hubai. World-famous violinists J. Joachim and L. Auer also began their creative careers in Hungary. Famous musicians came from Hungary - conductor A. von Nikisch, violinist K. Flesch.

In the 1890s, interest in ancient peasant folklore arose in Hungary; B. Vikar made the first recordings of it on a phonograph in 1896. Systematic scientific research began in the 1900s by Z. Kodaly and B. Bartok. The “discovery” of the Hungarian peasant song contributed to the renewal of the composer’s style and, on a pan-European scale, to the emergence of neo-folklorism. In the work of Bartók, the greatest Hungarian composer of the 20th century and one of the most brilliant musicians in the history of European music, elements of peasant folklore were combined with the latest phenomena of modern professional music, often the most radical for that time. His ballet “The Wonderful Mandarin” (1926, Cologne), “Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta” (1936), Concerto for Orchestra (1943), etc. became world classics. Among Kodály’s works, the Hungarian Psalm (1923) and the comic opera "Hari Janos" (1926, Budapest).

In the 20th century, composers E. Adam, S. Balassa, L. Weiner, J. Durko, P. Kadosha, L. Lajta, E. Lendvai, D. Ranki, F. Szabó, I. Selenyi, E. Székely, A. Szöllosi, F. Farkas, etc. The operas of S. Sokolai ("Bloody Wedding" after F. García Lorca, 1964, Budapest) and E. Petrovich ("C'est la guerre", 1962, Budapest), compositions by E. von Dohnanyi (also pianist and conductor). The largest Hungarian avant-garde composers of the 2nd half of the 20th century are D. Ligeti and D. Kurtág. Among the most significant Hungarian musicologists are L. Bardos (also a composer), D. Barta, D. Kerenyi, B. Szabolcsy, J. Ujfalussi. Among the world-famous performers are conductors A. Dorati, J. Ferencsik, F. Fricsai, G. Solti who worked in Hungary and abroad; pianists G. Anda, A. Fischer, T. Vashari, 3. Kocsis; violinist J. Szigeti; singers M. Ifogun, S. Konya, E. Marton, M. Szekely, S. Shashsh.

In Budapest there are: the Hungarian State Opera (1837), the Hungarian National Philharmonic Orchestra (founded in 1923, since 1952 - the Hungarian State Symphony Orchestra, since 1997 - the modern name). Orchestra of the Hungarian Radio and Television (1943), Budapest Festival Orchestra (1983), Hungarian Musical Association (founded in 1853 as the Philharmonic Society, since 1870 - the modern name), Liszt Higher School of Music (founded in 1875 as the National Royal Hungarian Academy of Music, since 1925 - modern name), Institute of Musicology. Other musical centers in Hungary are Debrecen, Pecs, Szeged, Miskolc. International competitions of musicians-performers and composers are held (since 1948, Budapest), choral competitions (Budapest, Debrecen, Pecs). International festivals: named after B. Bartok (since 1948), “Music of our time” (since 1974), etc.

Lit.: Kodäly Z., Bartha D. Die ungarische Musik. Bdpst, 1943; Kodály 3. Hungarian folk music. Budapest, 1961; Szabolcsi B. History of Hungarian music. Budapest, 1964; Music of Hungary. Sat. articles. M., 1968; Vigué J., Gergely J. La musique hongroise. 2 ed. R., 1976; Baläzs I. Musikführer durch Ungarn. Bdpst, 1991; Dobszay L. A history of Hungarian music. Bdpst, 1993.

Ballet

Professional ballet art has been known in Hungary since the 2nd half of the 18th century, when foreign dancers performed in the palaces of the Austro-Hungarian aristocracy (in 1772 - J. J. Noverre with his troupe; in 1794 - S. Vigano). During the same period, traveling troupes, amateur dancers and students of drama schools performed national dances both in Hungary itself and abroad (L. Szöllossi-Szabó, J. Farkas, S. Vester, etc.). The increased interest in ballet art in the mid-19th century was facilitated by the performances on the Budapest stage of F. Elsler, F. Cerrito, A. Saint-Leon, M. Taglioni. The Italian choreographer F. Campilli staged ballets on the stage of the National Theater and then the Hungarian Opera House for almost 40 years, inviting mainly foreign artists, while the famous Hungarian dancer E. Aranyvary was forced to emigrate. In the 1890s, the repertoire of the Hungarian Opera House included several national ballets to the music of Hungarian composers (Csardas by E. Stojanovic, Viora by K. Szabados, etc.). Tours of the Mariinsky Theater (1899, 1901), Diaghilev's Russian Ballet (1912/13, 1926), and A. P. Pavlova's troupe (1927) served as an impetus for the spread of classical dance. In the years 1902-15, the Italian choreographer N. Guerra staged about 20 ballets and trained a galaxy of subsequently famous artists and teachers: E. Nirshi, F. Nadashi, T. Shebeshi, A. Pallai and others. In 1917 he was on the Hungarian stage B. Bartok's first ballet, “The Wooden Prince,” was staged.

At the beginning of the 20th century, free dance began to develop in Hungary. Its largest representatives were V. Dienesh, A. Majar and O. Sentpal, who relied on the ideas of A. Duncan, B. Menzendieck and E. Jacques-Dalcroze. V. Dienesh, a student of the French philosopher A. Bergson, since 1912, has been promoting the system of “natural movement”, called orchistics; A. Madjar from the same year taught the so-called characterology, attaching paramount importance to the beauty and health of the body; Since 1917, the O. Szentpal school has been operating.

In the late 1920s - early 1930s, choreographers E. Brada, A. Gobier, and R. Kölling worked at the Hungarian Opera House. The foundations of national choreography were formed here. Among the first major choreographers of Hungary are R. Brada (“The Sacred Torch” by E. von Dohnanyi, 1934) and A. Millos (“Kurucskaya Tale” to the music of Z. Kodály, 1935). The pedagogical activity of F. Nadasy, who managed to instill in his students the style of the Italian and Russian classical schools of dance, was of great importance for the Hungarian ballet art. The productions of D. Harangoso (“The Tavern Scene” by E. Hubai, 1936; “The Wooden Prince”, 1939, 1958; “The Wonderful Mandarin” by B. Bartok, 1945, etc.) brought the Hungarian ballet theater to the European level. In 1945, K. Zsedanyi created the first provincial ballet troupe in Hungary - in the city of Szeged; in the 1960s, choreographer Z. Imre experimented here. Since the early 1950s, Soviet choreographers and teachers began working in Hungary. V. I. Vainonen and K. Armashevskaya organized advanced training courses for teachers, introducing them to the methods of the school of A. Ya. Vaganova. In 1950, the Ballet Institute was created. Since 1963, O. V. Lepeshinskaya has been a teacher and tutor of the ballet troupe of the Hungarian Opera House. Choreographers E. Vashhegyi and I. Eck also worked here. The latter, in 1960, founded and headed the troupe of the Pécs Ballet, the second largest ballet company in Hungary. This troupe sought to create a new choreographic language, using the achievements and experience of classical ballet and modern dance. Having staged about 100 ballets over 3 decades, Eck at the same time provided a stage for young Hungarian as well as foreign choreographers.

Among the famous Hungarian dancers and choreographers of different generations: I. Dozsa, F. Havas, J. Kuhn, G. Lakatos, A. Oros, V. Rona, S. Barkocsy, M. Bretouch, M. Kekesi, J. Merenyi, E En. Foreign choreographers also collaborated with the Hungarian Opera House, including F. Ashton, M. Bejar, N. D. Kasatkina and V. Yu. Vasilev.

In the 1980s, under the influence of foreign techniques (mainly American - M. Graham, H. Limona, etc.), as well as inheriting the ideas of the founders of Hungarian free dance or folklore traditions, new dance troupes began to appear: “Artus” under the direction of G. .Years; companies D. Berger, I. Bozhik; Dance Theater “Central Europe”, Theater of Hungarian Art of Movement, company “Experidance”, etc. In the Capital Operetta Theater there is a ballet troupe that performs performances consisting of one-act ballets. In 1979, a ballet troupe was organized in the city of Gyor under the direction of I. Marko. In 1993, Marko founded the Hungarian Festival Ballet. Since 1949, there has been a State Folk Dance Ensemble in Hungary. Since 1992, contemporary dance festivals have been held in the city of Győr. Among the outstanding dancers at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries: K. Hgai, J. Lachey, Z. Nagy, K. Wolf.

Lit.: Valyi R. A Magyar balett torténetébol. Bdpst, 1956; Dallos A. A Pésci balett torténete. Bdpst, 1969; Kortvélyes G., Löring G. Budapesti balett. Bdpst, 1971-1981. Kot. 1-2.

V. Dienesh.

Theater

The bearers of the original forms of theatrical folk culture were storytellers (regyoshi) and buffoons (yokulators). The origin of drama in the Hungarian language dates back to the era of the Reformation. The largest representative of Protestant drama was P. Bornemisza, who translated Sophocles' Electra into Hungarian in 1558. In the 17th and 18th centuries, in the church schools of many Catholic orders, performances were staged in Hungarian with both religious and secular content (free translations of Moliere, the interlude “The Marriage of Mihaly Kocsony” by an unknown author, etc.). At the beginning of the 18th century, court troupes appeared among the princes of Esterhazy, the counts of Palfi and others, who played mainly in German and Italian. In 1790, the actor and theater figure L. Kelemen created the first professional theater in Hungary in Pest (existed until 1796), where, along with bourgeois drama (A. Kotzebue, F. Schroeder), he staged works by G. E. Lessing, W. Shakespeare, Moliere, as well as plays by Hungarian playwrights (“The Philosopher” by D. Bessenyi and others). In 1792, a theater began its activity under the leadership of the Fejer brothers in Cluj (Transylvania). The generation of Hungarian actors who laid the foundations of the national theater school includes J. Koci-Patko, P. Jancso, A. Moor. The work of one of the early comedians of Hungary, the poet M. Csokonai-Vitez, is connected with the activities of the first Hungarian theaters. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, after the disbandment of Kelemen’s troupe, “travelling” theater became widespread (small troupes performed in villages and steppe towns). The most famous actors of this period: R. Derine-Seppataki, J. Szentpeteri, K. Medieri. In 1837, the permanent Pest Hungarian Theater opened in Pest (since 1840 - the Hungarian National Theater). Until 1884, not only dramatic but also opera performances were staged here. Among the actors: G. Egreshi, M. Lendvai, R. Laborfalvi. During the rise of the Hungarian National Theater (1878-94), associated with the activities of the director and director E. Paulai, playwright G. Csiki, actresses M. Yasai and E. Markus worked in the theater. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the People's Theater in Buda (1861-64, 1867-70), Nepsinhaz in Pest (1875), and Vigsinhaz (1896) were opened in the capital. In 1904, a group of intellectuals organized the innovative public theater "Thalia", modeled on the "Free Theater" of A. Antoine and the "Free Stage" of O. Brahm, but the troupe existed only until 1908.

In the 1920-1930s, the Hungarian theater experienced an acute crisis. Many actors and directors (F. Hont, H. Gobbi, T. Major, A. Horvath) participated in the work of the “Independent Stage” (city of Szeged) and amateur groups. In 1949, all private theaters were nationalized, which, on the one hand, led to an improvement in their economic situation, and on the other, to stylistic and genre uniformity and the primacy of the method of socialist realism on stage. After 1956, attempts to resist state cultural policy were made by young directors J. Rust, P. Halas, I. Paal. In the 1970s, a new generation of directors came to the theater: T. Asher, G. Szekely, G. Zsambeki. Since the beginning of the 1990s, in Budapest, along with the so-called art theaters (National J. Katona, etc.), theaters have appeared that focus on commercial performances or revues (A. József Theater, Chamber Theater, Vidam, etc. ), and also combine experimental and box office productions (“Merlin”, “Studio K.”, “Skene”, “Mu”). Among the most significant theaters: in Budapest - the Barka Theater, which includes a repertory theater, an art center and a theater studio; in the province - theaters in the cities of Kaposvar, Niregyhaza and the 3rd theater in the city of Pecs. International theater festivals are held annually in Budapest and Szeged, the All-Hungarian Theater Festival (in different cities), and the International Festival of Hungarian-language theaters in the city of Kisvarda.

Lit.: Magyar szinhâztorténet. Bdpst, 1962; Gershkovich A. A. Modern Hungarian theater. M., 1963; Ungarisches Theater, ungarisches Drama. Bdpst, 1980-1986. Bd 1-6.

Movie

The first Hungarian film was released in 1901 (“Dance” by cameraman B. Zytkowski - several choreographic miniatures performed by a folk ensemble). Mass film production began to improve by 1912. Among the directors of the 1910s: A. Korda, M. Kertiz. One of the first sound films was the comedy “Footman Hippolyte” (1931, directed by I. Székely). In the 1930s and 40s, against the backdrop of simple comedies and melodramas, decorated - as a national “specificity” - with operetta hits and csardas, rare films of a realistic direction with elements of social criticism stood out (Spring Shower by P. Fejos, 1932; People on the snowy mountains" by I. Secha, 1943, award at the Venice International Film Festival).

After World War II, directors V. Gertler, Z. Varkonyi, L. Ranodi, G. Radvanyi, F. Ban, M. Keleti, as well as the writer, playwright, screenwriter, and film theorist B. Balazs, who returned from emigration, came to cinema. , co-author of the script for the film “Somewhere in Europe” (1948, directed by G. Radvanyi), which became a classic of Hungarian cinema. In 1948, the Hungarian cinema industry was nationalized. In 1948-53, the repertoire was dominated by agitation and propaganda films, among the few exceptions - the film “An Inch of Earth” (1948, directed by Ban) dedicated to the fate of the Hungarian peasantry. In 1953-54, the films of Várkonyi (The Birth of Menhert Szymon, 1954), F. Mariassy (Budapest Spring, 1955; A Mug of Beer, 1955, Karlovy Vary International Film Festival award) became symbols of the Hungarian “thaw”, K. Makka (“Ward No. 9”, 1955). At the turn of the 1940s-50s, Z. Fabry came to film directing, whose international fame was brought to him by the film “Carousel” (1955).

The period of renewal that began after 1956 in the 1960s led to the flourishing of Hungarian cinema, which addressed complex issues of national history, including the events of the 2nd World War and the post-war period (“Dialogue” by J. Hershko, 1963; “Twenty Hours” "Z. Fabry, 1965, main prize at the International Film Festival in Moscow, Venice, etc.; "Junior Sergeant and others" M. Keleti, 1965). New themes and a new film language were brought with them by young directors M. Jancso, I. Szabo, as well as F. Kosha (“Ten Thousand Suns”, 1967, Cannes International Film Festival Award), I. Gaal (“In the Rapids”, 1964, in the domestic box office “Who Will Judge Them?”, the main prize of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival). The theme of the anti-fascist movement, one of the leading ones at that time, emphasized moral aspects (national guilt, individual choice and responsibility). The analysis of human behavior in the tragic circumstances of recent Hungarian history was successfully continued in the 1970s (“Love” by K. Makk, 1971, prize at the Cannes International Film Festival; “The Fifth Seal” by Fabry, 1976, main prize at the Moscow International Film Festival). Films addressed to the social problems of our time, to the private lives of people, reflected growing public dissatisfaction (“Dead Land” by I. Gaal, 1972; “Adoption” by M. Meszáros, 1975, in domestic release “House on the Outskirts”, main prize at the International Film Festival in West Berlin, etc.). At this time, the focus of attention was on documentary cinema, which explored reality in the form of the so-called sociographic film. It influenced fiction cinema and gave rise to a special type of film - documentary-fiction (“Photography” by P. Zolnai, 1972, prize at the International Film Festival in Moscow; “Film Novel - Three Sisters” by I. Dardai and D. Szalai, 1977; “Little Valentino "A. Elyosha, 1979). In the 2nd half of the 1970s, Stalinism became the central theme of Hungarian cinema: “Faith of Angi” by P. Gabor (1978, award at the International Film Festival in Cannes, San Sebastian, etc.), “The Owner of the Stud Farm” by A. Kovacs (1978) , as well as P. Bacho's The Witness (1969), released after a ten-year ban. The development of this theme was continued in the 1980s in the autobiographical cycle of Mészáros (“Diary for My Children”, 1984, Cannes International Film Festival Award; “Diary for My Loved Ones”, 1987, West Berlin International Film Festival Award). The films “Lucky Daniel” by P. are dedicated to the theme of the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and its consequences. Sándora, “Looking at Each Other” by Makka (both 1982, Cannes International Film Festival Award). National history and folk culture were the sources of original works in film language by M. Jancso (“The People Still Ask”, 1972, Cannes International Film Festival Award; Hungarian Rhapsody and Allegro Barbaro, both 1979, Cannes International Film Festival Award) and Z. Husarik, who created a cycle of philosophical and poetic short films (“Elegy”, 1965) and two full-length films - “Sinbad” (1971) and “Chontvari” (1980).

In the second half of the 1970s and in the 1980s, a generation of directors came to cinema who developed new forms of cinematic expressiveness, combining the desire for an unmade-up texture of life with a heightened genre theatrical convention and postmodern stylistic eclecticism: P. Gotard (“This a day is a gift", 1979, prize at the Venice International Film Festival; "Passport", 2000), A. Elesh ("Dream of a Brigade", 1983, released in 1989; "Joseph and his brothers - excerpts from the peasant bible" , 2002-03), D. Somyash (“Minor bodily injury”, 1983), I. Enedi (“My 20th Century”, 1988, Cannes International Film Festival award). In the 1980s, the films of I. Szabo won wide international recognition - “Mephisto” (1981, Oscar Award), “Colonel Redl” (1984, Cannes International Film Festival Award, etc.), “Hanussen” (1988). The political reforms of 1989-91 entailed a change of creative generations. The aesthetics of films by J. Szasz (Woyzeck, 1993), D. Palfi (Hiccups, 2002, main prize at the San Sebastian International Film Festival) and others were influenced by modern video culture. The traditions of European auteur cinema are inherited by B. Tapp (“The Damnation”, 1987; “Satanic Tango”, 1994, award at the Berlin International Film Festival; “Werkmeister Harmonies”, 2000). The Hungarian camera school has earned a high reputation in the world, its most famous representatives are D. Illes, S. Szára, T. Somlo, J. Kende, J. Toth, L. Koltai, P. Yankura, E. Ragayi. The largest Hungarian actors: E. Rutkai, Z. Latinovich, A. Pager, M. Töröcsik, D. Garas, I. Darvas, D. Udvaros, I. Banszagi, D. Cserhalmi, K. Eperjes, P. Andorai. Hungarian animated films have received wide worldwide recognition (D. and K. Maccsaksi, J. Jankovic, A. Dargai, F. Rofus, F. Tsako, C. Vargi, etc.).

Since 1965, a national screening of documentaries and feature films has been held annually in Pécs, and since 1983 in Budapest. The Hungarian National Film Archive conducts scientific research and publishes film literature. The main periodical film publications are Filmvilàg (since 1958), Filmkultûra (since 1960), Metropolis (since 1997). The training of creative personnel is carried out by the film department of the Budapest Academy of Theater and Film.

Lit.: Nemeshkyurti I. History of Hungarian cinema (1896-1966). M., 1969; Kelecsényi L. A magyar hangosfilm hét évtizede. 1931-2000: Hyppolittôl Werckmeisterig. Bdpst, 2003; Balogh G., Gyürey V., Honffy R. A magyar jâtekfilm tôrténete a kezdetektöl 1990-ig. Bdpst, 2004.

A. S. Troshin.

Circus

Elements of circus art existed in folk games, rituals, and equestrian competitions. For example, equestrian competitions of shepherds eventually turned into the Hungarian Post act. In the 19th century, foreign circus troupes toured Hungary. Since 1904, a circus troupe periodically worked in Budapest under the direction of the Russian clown and trainer M. I. Beketov (“Beketov’s Russian Circus”); The Hungarian acrobats Faludi and Hortobadi, the clown-coupletist Janci and others studied with him and gained fame. Since 1923, Beketov headed the Great Budapest Circus, which was nationalized in 1949. In 1950, the circus tents were also nationalized. In the same year, the State Circus School was opened. In 1954, the State Administration of Circuses was formed. In the 1960s and 70s, international class attractions appeared in Hungary: acrobats on flip boards “10 Varadi”, aerial tightrope walker T. Shimon, musical eccentric G. Etvas, elephant trainer I. Kristof, juggler G. Gazdag, etc. In 1971 The opening of the new building of the Great Budapest Circus took place. After the 1990s, tent circuses in Hungary became private enterprises. The Great Budapest Circus remains state-owned; international circus competitions are held in its arena.

Lit.: Secret I., Sziladi D. Past and present // Parade-alle. M., 1989.

Hungarian Republic

Square: 93 thousand sq. km

Administrative division: 19 regions, 1 city of republican subordination (Budapest)

Capital: Budapest

Official language: Hungarian

Currency unit: forint

Population: 10.06 million (2006)

Population density per sq. km: 108 people

Proportion of urban population: 60 %

Ethnic composition of the population: Hungarians, Germans, Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, Serbs, Slovenes, Bulgarians, etc.

Religion: Christianity (about 50% of the population are Catholics, the rest are Protestants of various denominations)

Basis of the economy: agriculture and industry

Employment: in the service sector - St. 80%; in agriculture - approx. eleven %; in industry – 7%

GDP: 149.3 billion USD (2004)

GDP per capita: 14.8 thousand USD

Form of government: unitarianism

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Legislature: unicameral parliament

Head of State: the president

Head of the government: Prime Minister

Party structures: multi-party system

Fundamentals of government

Hungarian statehood began to take shape at the end of the 9th century, as part of the so-called Finding of the Homeland by the Hungarians under the leadership of Arpad. In 1001–1526 there was the Kingdom of Hungary, which, having fallen under the rule of the Habsburgs and having experienced various transformations, in 1867 became part of Austria-Hungary. After the collapse of the dualist empire, Hungary was proclaimed a republic (November 16, 1919). After World War II and the second proclamation of the republic (February 1, 1946), Hungary began to adhere to a socialist orientation. By 1948, key positions in the government were occupied by communists. The Constitution adopted on August 18, 1949 declared Hungary a people's republic. Changes in the political situation in Europe in the mid-1980s. led to the creation of a democratic of the Hungarian Republic(October 23, 1989). Unlike other countries of the former socialist camp, Hungary did not change its Basic Law. The Constitution of 1949, as amended in 1989, is currently in force. The short preamble states that the text of the Constitution is approved “based on the goal of promoting a peaceful political transition to a rule of law state that implements a multi-party system, parliamentary democracy and social market economy.” The Constitution consists of fifteen chapters and seventy-eight articles (paragraphs). Amendments are adopted by two-thirds of the votes of deputies of the State Assembly. The most significant changes were made in 1997 and 2003.

The head of state is the president, “who guards the democratic functioning of the state apparatus.” He is elected by the State Assembly (parliament). A candidacy is nominated based on individual written proposals from deputies; at least fifty such proposals (in support of one person) must be received, then a secret vote takes place. The one who receives at least two-thirds of the votes is considered elected the first time. The term of office of the president is five years; one re-election is possible. The lower age limit for the head of state is thirty-five years. A proposal to impeach the president can be made by a fifth of the deputies of the State Assembly, but the final decision is made by the Constitutional Court.

The highest body of legislative power and popular representation is the unicameral parliament - State Assembly. Parliamentary elections are held according to a mixed system: one hundred and seventy-six deputies are elected from single-member constituencies in two rounds using a majoritarian system, one hundred and fifty-two deputies are elected from party lists in multi-member territorial districts, and fifty-eight are elected from party lists in a national electoral district. In multi-member constituencies, parties must pass the five percent threshold. The term of office of deputies is four years. Parliament sessions are held twice a year, and emergency sessions can be convened.

According to the Constitution, the right of legislative initiative is vested in the head of state, the government, all commissions of the State Assembly and each member of parliament. The right to pass laws belongs exclusively to the State Assembly. The president approves (signs) laws. If the latter does not agree with the law or any of its provisions, he can send it for revision or examination to the Constitutional Court.

Executive power is exercised by the government. The head of government (prime minister), at the proposal of the president, is elected by the State Assembly. The decision to appoint a prime minister is made simultaneously with the government program. The composition of the cabinet is determined by the head of government, but the appointment of ministers and their dismissal is made by the president. In its activities, the government is accountable to parliament.

The chapter on local self-government in an updated form was included in the text of the Constitution in 1990. It states that citizens with the right to vote “exercise self-government through the representative institutions they have elected.” The chairman of the local representative institution is the mayor. The central government, after requesting the opinion of the Constitutional Court, may dissolve the representative body whose activities contradict the Constitution.

Judicial system

According to the Constitution (as amended in 1997), the parts of the judicial system are the Supreme Court of the Hungarian Republic, courts of appeal, capital district courts, regional courts, local courts, and labor dispute courts.

Chairman Supreme Court at the proposal of the head of state, elects the State Assembly (at least two-thirds of the votes must be received in support of the candidacy). The president appoints deputy chairmen, but at the same time he takes into account the opinion of the chairman himself.

The Prosecutor General, who, according to the Constitution, ensures the protection of the rights of citizens, as well as the “steady prosecution of any act that violates or threatens the constitutional order, security and independence of the country,” is also appointed by parliament (at the proposal of the president).

The appointment of prosecutors is made by the Prosecutor General, and the appointment of judges by the head of state.

Judges of any court, according to the laws of the Hungarian Republic, cannot be party members and do not have the right to conduct political activities.

A separate chapter of the Basic Law is devoted to the Constitutional Court, which has the right to repeal laws and other legal norms if they do not comply with the Constitution (the Chairman of the Constitutional Court before being elected to the presidency was Laszlo Szolyom).

The members of the Constitutional Court (eleven people) are elected by the National Assembly.

Leading political parties

Before the changes of the last decade of the twentieth century. The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, to which the Fatherland People's Front was subordinate, was a state party.

Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party(VSRP) was created on the basis Communist Party of Hungary(organized in 1918), in September 1944 renamed Hungarian Communist Party(VKP). In June 1948, the CPSU merged with Social Democratic Party of Hungary(SDPV), operating since 1890. The result of this association was Hungarian Workers' Party(VPT) in November 1956, after the suppression by Soviet troops of the Hungarian uprising directed against “barracks socialism”, reorganized into the HSWP. Since 1954, the support of the VPT/HSRP has been Fatherland People's Front(ONF), designed to strengthen the “socialist unity of the nation.” With the beginning of democratic reforms in Hungary, the HSWP experienced another global reorganization and in October 1989 received the name Hungarian Socialist Party(VSP); she is currently ruling. It is noteworthy that the “old” HSWP has also been preserved, uniting opponents of change, but its numbers are small.

The multi-party system in Hungary was formalized legislatively in 1989, but even before that they resumed their activities Small Farmers Party(PMSH), which was the ruling one until 1947, SDPV, etc. New parties also appeared, the strongest of which turned out to be Hungarian Democratic Forum(WDF), led by communist reformers led by Imre Pozsgai. Initially, it represented a mass movement in support of the “third way” (neither socialist nor communist) development of Hungary. The current President of Hungary, L. Solyom, participated in the creation of the VDF. WDF supports Alliance of Young Democrats, created in the mid-1990s.

The largest opposition party in Hungary is Hungarian Civil Union(FIDES), led by Viktor Orban.

Enjoy voter support Union of Free Democrats, Christian Democratic People's Party and etc.

The president

Since June 2005 – Laszlo Solyom

Prime Minister

Since October 2004 – Ferenc Gyurcsany (VSP)

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