Nikolay Borisov

Sometimes questions arise related to the technical side of ancient throwing weapons. For example, what was the speed and flight range of crossbow arrows from different crossbows, what was the efficiency of medieval crossbows, and others.
Based on descriptions of ancient weapons, using experiments with modern throwing weapons, it is possible to make estimates and calculations for throwing weapons of past times.
The book “Bows and Crossbows,” compiled by Roslavlev, 2002, includes the “Book of Crossbows,” written by a researcher of ancient throwing weapons, Ralph Payne-Gallwey, and published in 1907.
Ralph Payne-Gallwein describes various crossbow designs and also gives some of their characteristics.
For example, for a powerful hunting crossbow with a steel arc, he provides the following interesting data: the bowstring that is put on the arc should be 1.25 shorter than the distance between the arc hooks; 1.875 cm, If more, then the arc energy will not be fully used, if less, the same thing. For this crossbow, the base size is 12.75 cm, and the working stroke is 15 cm. The length of its steel arc is 76cm. The weight of such a crossbow is 6 kg without a cranekin.
From the book by Ralph Payne-Gallwein it also follows that the minimum working stroke of the bowstring of medieval crossbows was 12.5 cm.
The book contains drawings and dimensions of medieval crossbow arrows.

Here is another example - a large siege crossbow, weighing 8.15 kg. Ralph Payne-Gallwein acquired it in the early 20th century, repaired it and tested it.
The main data of the crossbow: the draw force is 1200 pounds (544 kg), the working stroke of the bowstring is 17.5 cm, the flight range of a crossbow arrow weighing 85 grams is 420.6 meters. The arrow has a length of 35cm. The bow of a crossbow is a straight steel bow 96.5 cm long.

There is an opinion that the flight of ancient crossbow arrows is very slow and with almost no loss of speed, and the initial speed of the ancient crossbow arrow (bolt) was about 50m/sec.
This makes me skeptical, because I can’t believe that the bolt, which flew a distance of 420m, had such a low initial speed.
Ralph Payne-Gallwein, at the beginning of the 20th century, did not have a chronograph to measure the speed of flight of arrows, and I, in the 21st century, do not have ancient crossbows to test them directly.
But, despite this, finding out the initial speed of an arrow (bolt) from an ancient crossbow, and, at the same time, calculating its efficiency (or crossbow efficiency) is an interesting task and quite acceptable in the 21st century.
To solve this problem, you need to make a replica of a medieval bolt and shoot it from a modern crossbow.
When making the replica, I was guided by the arrow that Ralph Payne-Gallwein shot from a powerful fortress crossbow across the Menai Strait (England). It is known about the arrow that it had a length of 35 cm and a weight of 85 grams. In addition, I was guided by its description and a detailed drawing of a crossbow arrow of a slightly shorter length.
The finished replica of a medieval arrow has the following characteristics: length 35cm, the cross-section of the wooden part has the shape of a square with a side of 16mm at the beginning, then the cross-section decreases and by the end it is also a square with a side of 13mm. At the very end, the arrow is narrowed on both sides to a size of 10mm. All square ribs are rounded, and the maximum diameter of the ribs is 18mm. The weight of the replica is 81.12 grams, including the weight of the tip - 43.53 grams. In short, the weight of the replica fell slightly short of 85 grams, but the designs of these arrows differ mainly in length and fit into the general picture of crossbow bolts of that period.
The main difference between the replica of a medieval bolt and its analogue is the design of the tail. If a medieval arrow has 2 or 3 feathers, then mine has 4. They are somewhat smaller than the medieval ones, but there are more of them and the total fletching area will not differ much from the fletching area of ​​medieval arrows. It is also necessary to keep in mind that some medieval crossbow bolts were made without any feathering at all.

For calculations on crossbows, you will need to determine the ballistic coefficient of such an arrow. It will not differ much for medieval arrows of similar design.
To determine the ballistic coefficient of a replica medieval crossbow bolt, I conducted experimental shooting with a Hunter Supreme SL compound crossbow from Horton.
The characteristics of the crossbow are as follows:
- tension force – 68.6 kg;
- working stroke – 26.5 cm
During experimental shooting, the initial speed of the replica, determined using the Canadian CHRONY chronograph, was 48.31 m/sec. The maximum flight range, at an angle of 43° to the horizon, was 205.3 m. According to the calculation in the spreadsheet, the ballistic coefficient of the replica is 10.3.
When shooting experimentally across the direction of the wind, the arrow flew in the forward and reverse directions to almost the same distance. The same cannot be said about a modern arrow, for which the difference in flight there and back was 7; 8%.
In order to conduct experimental shooting with the replica, I had to remove the clamping bar from the crossbow, which prevented the installation of the arrow in the crossbow.
In addition, in order for the arrow to receive the correct direction, the arrow had to be installed with its edge in the guide groove. The feathers on the arrow are glued to the ribs, so the feather on the guide rib additionally helped to ensure the correct direction of the arrow's movement along the crossbow's groove.

Calculation of the performance of a shot from a crossbow by Ralph Payne-Gallwein.

Let's plug in the ballistic coefficient 10.3 into the spreadsheet; the take-off angle is 43° and we will substitute different speed values ​​into the initial data until the flight range is 420.6 meters - the distance at which Ralph Payne-Gallwein shot when testing a crossbow. The result is an initial speed of 75.m/sec. The energy of the bolt at this speed and weight is 85g. will be – 239 J.
Now let's determine the efficiency of a siege crossbow. To do this, you need to have a graph of the “force-tension” curve of such a crossbow
Since we do not have data on the corresponding curve, we can construct it with some assumptions using information on straight Longbow bows provided on the Internet.
Internet resource address: http://crossbow.wikia.com/wiki/Bow_design
http://www.dryadbows.com/Defining.pdf
as well as the ACS Bows website.
A longbow without a string is a straight stick, just like a steel crossbow bow when unstrung. That is, both of them fall into the “simple straight bow” category.
Theoretically, the best version of the “force-tension” curve for a straight bow is a straight diagonal, which is drawn on the drawing of a rectangle, the lower side of which is the length of the working stroke of the bowstring, and the vertical side is the value of the forces, with a gradual tension of the bowstring.
The area under the diagonal of the rectangle is the potential energy stored by the onion.
In real longbows, the force-draft curve is somewhat concave. Thus, for Longbow the area under the force-tension curve is 91% of the ideal. In our case, there is also a long straight arc, and without a large error, by analogy with Longbow, we can take the stored energy equal to 91% of the ideal.
Having constructed such a graph and made calculations, we find that the potential energy of the Ralph Payne-Gallwein crossbow will be 425 joules.
Now you can estimate the efficiency of a fortress crossbow when firing bolts weighing 85g. The initial energy of an 85 gram bolt, as calculated above, is 239 J. The efficiency of such a shot will be:
239/425 = 0.562 or 56.2%.
According to the calculation in the spreadsheet, at takeoff, such a bolt will have a speed of 58.3 m/sec. In this case, its energy upon impact will be 144 joules. The energy loss at a distance of 420.6 m will be 40%.
According to wound ballistics, the enemy is defeated if the blow has an energy of 80 - 100 joules. In our case, at the end of the bolt, if it hits the enemy, his defeat is guaranteed, and even armor will not save you.
The flight time at an angle of 43 degrees will be 10 seconds. The maximum flight path height is 123m.
This material provides a photograph of the arrows included in Table 2, plus a replica of the medieval crossbow bolt discussed in this article.

George Palmer, Werner Sodel, Vernard Foley

Vernard Foley, George Palmer, Werner Soedel. The Crossbow

This formidable weapon, invented 2,400 years ago, was widespread in the 11th century. For 500 years, until firearms appeared, crossbows were primarily used for protection.

N ACHINAYA since the 11th century. For 500 years, the crossbow has been a formidable military weapon. It was mainly used to protect various objects, such as castles and ships. In addition, the crossbow played a significant role in understanding the properties of various materials (since during its manufacture it was necessary to take into account the action of many forces) and the laws of movement in the air (after all, the crossbow arrow had to have certain flight qualities). Leonardo da Vinci repeatedly turned to the study of the principles underlying crossbow shooting.

The craftsmen who made bows, crossbows and arrows did not know mathematics or the laws of mechanics. Nevertheless, tests of samples of old arrows carried out at Purdue University showed that these craftsmen managed to achieve high aerodynamic qualities.

At first glance, the crossbow does not seem complicated. Its arc, as a rule, was strengthened in front, across a wooden or metal machine - the stock. A special device held the bowstring stretched to the limit and released it. The direction of flight of a short crossbow arrow was set either by a groove cut out at the top of the stock into which the arrow was placed, or by two stops that secured it in front and behind. If the arc was very elastic, then a special device was installed on the bed to tension it; sometimes it was removable and carried along with a crossbow.

The design of a crossbow has two advantages over a conventional bow. Firstly, the crossbow shoots further, and the shooter armed with it in a duel with an archer remains inaccessible to the enemy. Secondly, the design of the stock, sight and trigger greatly facilitated handling of the weapon; it did not require special training from the shooter. The hook teeth, which held and released the drawn string and arrow, are one of the earliest attempts to mechanize some of the functions of the human hand.

The only thing in which a crossbow was inferior to a bow was its speed of fire. Therefore, it could only be used as a military weapon if there was a shield, behind which the warrior took cover while reloading. It is for this reason that the crossbow was mainly a common type of weapon for fortress garrisons, siege troops and ship crews.

A RBALET was invented long before it became widespread. There are two versions regarding the invention of this weapon. According to one, it is believed that the crossbow first appeared in Greece, according to another - in China. Around 400 BC. e. The Greeks invented a throwing machine (catapult) for throwing stones and arrows. Its appearance was explained by the desire to create a weapon more powerful than a bow. Initially, some catapults, similar in principle to a crossbow, apparently did not exceed it in size.

The version of the origin of the crossbow in China is supported by archaeological finds of bronze triggers dating back to 200 BC. e. Although evidence of the first appearance of the crossbow in Greece is earlier, written Chinese sources mention the use of this weapon in battles in 341 BC. e. According to other data, the reliability of which is more difficult to establish, the crossbow was known in China one century earlier.

Archaeological finds indicate that the crossbow was used in Europe throughout the entire period from the ancient era to the 11th-16th centuries, when it became most widespread. It can be assumed that its widespread use before the 11th century. There were two obstacles. One of them is that arming troops with crossbows was much more expensive than with bows. Another reason is the small number of castles in that period; Castles began to play a historically important role only after the conquest of England by the Normans (1066).

With the increasing role of castles, the crossbow became an indispensable weapon used in feudal feuds, which were not without fierce battles. Fortifications in the pre-Norman period were usually very simple and served mainly as shelters for the people living nearby. Therefore, it was necessary to keep weapons behind the fortress walls to repel the attacks of the conquerors. The Normans exercised power in the conquered territories with the help of small, heavily armed military units. Castles served them to hide from the indigenous inhabitants and repel attacks by other armed groups. The firing range of the crossbow contributed to the reliable protection of these shelters.

Over the centuries after the appearance of the first crossbows, attempts were made repeatedly to improve these weapons. One of the methods may have been borrowed from the Arabs. Arab hand bows were of a type called compound or compound. Their design fully corresponds to this name, since they were made from various materials. A composite bow has distinct advantages over a bow made from a single piece of wood, since the latter has limited elasticity due to the natural properties of the material. When an archer pulls the bowstring, the arc of the bow on the outer side (from the archer) experiences tension, and on the inner side it experiences compression. If the tension is excessive, the wood fibers of the arc begin to deform and permanent “wrinkles” appear on its inner side. Typically the bow was kept bent, and exceeding a certain tension could cause it to break.

In a compound bow, a material that can withstand greater tension than wood is attached to the outer surface of the bow. This additional layer takes on the load and reduces the deformation of wood fibers. The most commonly used material was animal tendons, especially the ligamentum nuchae, a large elastic knot that runs along the spine and over the shoulders of most mammals. Tests have shown that such material, if properly processed, can withstand tension of up to 20 kg/sq. mm. This is about four times more than the most suitable tree can support.

For the inside of the bow, they used a material that works better in compression than wood. The Turks used bull horn for these purposes, the permissible compression force of which is about 13 kg/sq. mm. (Wood can withstand compressive loads four times less.) The unusually high awareness of archery craftsmen about the properties of various materials can also be judged by the kind of glues they used in the manufacture of bows. The glue made from the sky of the Volga sturgeon was considered the best. The variety of unusual materials used in archery suggests that many design solutions were achieved experimentally.

A RBALETs with compound arcs were common in the Middle Ages, including the Renaissance. They were lighter than crossbows with a steel bow, which began to be manufactured at the beginning of the 15th century; with the same bowstring tension, they shot further and were more reliable. The action of compound arcs interested Leonardo da Vinci. His manuscripts indicate that he used them to study the behavior of various materials under load.

The introduction of the steel bow in the Middle Ages was the zenith in the development of crossbow design. In terms of its parameters, it could be second only to a crossbow made of fiberglass and other modern materials. Steel arcs had a flexibility that no organic material had previously been able to provide. The Victorian sportsman Ralph Payne-Gallwey, who wrote a treatise on the crossbow, tested a large military crossbow with a string tension of 550 kg, sending an 85 gram arrow to a distance of 420 m. E. Harmuth, an expert on the history of the crossbow, claims that there were arcs with twice the tension. However, in the Middle Ages, the most common crossbows were those with a draw weight of less than 45 kg. Even with special lightweight arrows they shot no further than 275 m.

With the achievement of higher tensions, steel arches no longer benefit in efficiency. Increasing the mass of the arc limited its ability to impart greater acceleration to the arrow. Because of the difficulty of obtaining large-sized steel ingots, crossbow bows were typically fused from many pieces of metal. Each fusion point reduced the reliability of the crossbow: at any moment the arc in this place could break.

More powerful crossbows required reliable triggers. It should be noted that the trigger mechanisms used by the Europeans, which usually consisted of a rotating tooth and a simple lever release, were inferior to the Chinese ones, which had an intermediate lever that allowed the shot to be fired with a short and light pull on the trigger lever. At the beginning of the 16th century. in Germany, multi-lever triggers of a more advanced design began to be used. It is interesting that a little earlier Leonardo da Vinci came up with the same design of the trigger mechanism and proved its advantages by calculation.

A The RBALLET arrow has also changed over time. Before tracing its evolution, let's consider the forces acting on a bow arrow. When shooting from a conventional bow, the arrow at the moment of aiming should be located between the center of the archer's chest and the fingers of his outstretched hand. The relative position of these two points determines the direction of flight of the arrow after the bowstring is released.

The forces acting on the arrow when it is released, however, do not exactly coincide with the line of sight. The released string pushes the butt of the arrow towards the center of the bow, rather than to the side. Therefore, in order for the arrow not to deviate from the given direction, it must bend slightly at the moment of launch.

The required arrow flexibility for a traditional bow places a limit on the amount of energy imparted to it. For example, it was found that an arrow designed for a bow with a tension of up to 9 kg, when shot from a crossbow with a tension of 38 kg, can bend so much that its shaft breaks.

In this regard, in the ancient era, when crossbows and catapults began to be used, arrows of a new design were invented. Due to the fact that the surface of the crossbow stock ensured that the direction of movement of the bowstring coincided with the initial direction of flight of the arrow, and a special guiding device made it possible to hold it in a certain position without using hands, it became possible to make crossbow arrows shorter and less elastic. This in turn made them easier to store and carry.

The design of arrows that appeared at that time can be judged by two main types that have survived to this day. One type of arrow is half the length of a regular bow arrow. It flares sharply towards the rear end and has several vanes, or fletchings, that are too small to stabilize the arrow in flight. The end part of the boom is captured by hooking teeth.

Other types of arrows do not have blades. Their metal front is a third of their length, and the wooden shaft is reduced to a minimum. These arrows also have a shape that flares towards the tail. Their total length is less than 15 cm.

The design features of these arrows indicate that the masters of Ancient Rome, who first invented them, were familiar with the flight qualities of bodies of various shapes. Today we understand that the fletching, which prevents the arrow from rotating in flight, is the main reason for its braking. Reducing its size would make it possible to increase the range of the arrow, provided that it does not turn to the side, which would further slow down its flight. This can be avoided by sharpening the shaft, that is, making it narrower at the front than at the back. If an arrow with such a shaft begins to turn to the side, then the air pressure on the wider rear part will be higher than on the front; Due to this, the direction of flight of the arrow is leveled.

It can also be assumed that the shaft has a center of pressure (the equilibrium point of all aerodynamic forces acting on it) located behind the center of gravity. On a cylindrical arrow without fletching, this point will be located approximately in the middle of the shaft. With an expanding boom, the center of pressure moves toward the rear. Since the center of pressure is located behind the center of gravity, the stability of an arrow with a flared shaft is higher than with a cylindrical one, and due to the absence of feathers, its drag is less. The expanding shaft also contributes to a more uniform distribution of air pressure on its surface. Using the terminology of modern aerodynamics, we can say that the boundary layer is less susceptible to destruction. Reducing the length of the boom also improves its flight characteristics, since with increasing length the turbulence of the air flow parallel to the cylindrical surface increases, absorbing more energy.

D ANOTHER factor that affects the effectiveness of flared shaft arrows is fletch design. To hold the bolt with the gripping teeth of the trigger mechanism, a special recess was made in its plumage. Like the flared shape of the shaft, the presence of a notch helps air flow more evenly around the arrow, reducing energy-absorbing turbulence behind it.

In the early Middle Ages, the craftsmen who made bows and crossbows were not familiar with the laws of air movement and the forces that arise on the surface of bodies when they move in the air. Concepts such as air flow and drag did not appear until the time of Leonardo da Vinci. There is no doubt that crossbow arrows were created primarily through trial and error. Probably, their creators were guided by the desire to achieve maximum flight range and greatest impact force.

Nevertheless, the design of crossbow arrows is perfect. Wind tunnel tests we conducted at the Purdue University Aerodynamics Laboratory confirm this. An ordinary arrow for a combat bow, such as was used in the Middle Ages, a crossbow arrow dating from the same period, and two types of arrows for a catapult were tested. The results obtained should be interpreted with some caution, since the sizes of the objects under study, especially the smallest ones, approached the sensitivity threshold of the measuring equipment. But even under these extreme experimental conditions, it was possible to obtain very interesting data. Firstly, the smallest arrow, which was completely preserved, except for minor damage to the tail, judging by the data obtained, stably maintained its position at all permissible flight angles.

Secondly, a comparative analysis of the drag-to-weight ratio for all four types of arrows showed that the bow arrow was significantly inferior in its flight qualities to the other three. The mass of an arrow can be thought of as a measure of its ability to store kinetic energy. If all these arrows were launched at the same speed, then the mass of each of them would determine the energy reserve of the arrow at the initial moment. The rate of energy consumption depends on the drag. A low drag-to-weight ratio means the arrow is likely to have a long range.

For bow arrows this ratio is approximately twice that of crossbow arrows. It can be assumed that if medieval and earlier craftsmen had managed to overcome design limitations in creating bow arrows, they could have developed a more optimal design. The existing design of the arrow corresponded so well to the materials available at that time that its geometry was not improved during the period while the bow was considered the main weapon.

IN ALL THESE improvements were dictated by the urgent need for crossbows. Often in peacetime, garrisons were stationed on the territory of castles, consisting mainly of shooters armed with crossbows. At well-defended outposts, such as the English port of Calais (on the northern coast of France), there were 53 thousand crossbow arrows in reserve. The owners of these castles usually purchased arrows in large quantities - 10-20 thousand pieces each. It is estimated that over the 70 years from 1223 to 1293, one family in England produced 1 million crossbow arrows.

Based on these facts, we can say that mass production began long before the industrial revolution. This can be confirmed by the simple device used at that time from two fastened wooden blocks, forming something similar to a vice: an arrow blank was inserted into the recesses in the wooden blocks for subsequent processing. To make the tail blades, metal plates with grooves were used into which blanks were inserted. This device made it possible to obtain the required dimensions and symmetrical shape of the blades.

Another device was a planing machine, which was probably intended both for turning the arrow shaft and for cutting grooves into which the feather blades were inserted. Rods from wooden blanks of small diameter were not easy to produce on primitive lathes of that time, since the blanks were bent when processed with a cutting tool. In a planing machine, a metal cutting tool was fixed in a wooden block with two clamps on opposite sides. The block moved along the clamping device, which firmly held the arrow blank. The cutting tool removed chips until the block reached the surface of the clamping device. In this way, automatic control of the thickness of the cut layer and cutting direction was achieved. As a result, the arrows were almost the same size.

N AND THE crossbow was REPLACED by a firearm. The popularity of the ancient crossbow began to decline. However, they continued to be used in naval battles. The reason was that the crossbow did not have a fuse, and it was safe for the shooter, unlike firearms, which at first often hit the shooter himself. In addition, the bulwark on the ship served as good cover, behind which one could safely reload a crossbow. Heavier crossbows continued to be used in whaling. Firearms gradually replaced the crossbow in hunting on land. The exception was crossbows, which fired stones or bullets. This type of weapon was used in hunting small game until the 19th century. The fact that these crossbows, which fired shot or bullets, had much in common with firearms indicates the mutual influence of the two types of weapons in the process of their evolution. Such elements of firearms as the stock, the trigger, which requires a slight pressure, and the sighting device, were borrowed from crossbows, and primarily from sports ones. Such crossbows have not yet gone out of use.

Appearance in the 20th century. fiberglass materials led to the creation of a new generation of composite crossbows. Glass fibers are not inferior in properties to natural veins, and their cellular structure is as strong as a bull's horn. Although the crossbow still lags behind the bow in popularity in many respects in the revival of archery, it also has many adherents. A modern crossbow shooter has at his disposal a “weapon” that is much more advanced than what it was in the Middle Ages.

ENGLISH CROSSBOW. Its wooden stock shows the date of manufacture - 1617. The ivory plate with inlay indicates that this crossbow was a hunting one; a military crossbow would hardly have such artistic decoration. To tension the crossbow string, a force exceeding one hundred kilograms was required, so the crossbowman used a special mechanism with a gear drive. The crossbow stock has a socket that was probably intended for this mechanism. The bowstring is shown in a taut state. In this position, it was held by hooking teeth, which released it when the trigger, located at the bottom of the stock, was pressed. A short 30.5 cm long arrow fired from a crossbow flew a distance of about 400 m. The crossbow's arc was attached to the stock using a ring and a harness. The drawing was made from a crossbow from the collection of the US Military Academy Museum at West Point (New York).

FRENCH COMBAT CROSSBOW XIV century. and two arrows for it from the collection of the US Military Academy Museum at West Point (New York). It was impossible to tighten the bowstring of such a crossbow manually, so a collar was installed at the rear end of the machine, or stock. The stock has a length of 101 cm, the width of the crossbow arc is 107 cm, and the length of the arrows is approximately 38 cm.

THE ARROW PARADOX partly explains why short arrows were used when shooting crossbows. The paradox is demonstrated for the case when the shooter uses an arrow from a conventional bow. When aiming (1), the arrow is positioned on one side of the bow. The sight line runs along the arrow. However, when the archer releases the arrow (2), the force exerted by the string causes the tail of the arrow to move towards the center of the bow. In order for the arrow to maintain its direction towards the target, it must bend in flight (3). During the first few meters of flight, the arrow vibrates, but eventually its position stabilizes (4). The need for flexibility in a bow arrow limits the amount of energy that can be imparted to it. In contrast, a crossbow arrow must be shorter and stiffer, since the crossbow imparts significant energy to it. Such arrows also had better aerodynamic properties.

TRIGGER MECHANISMS of crossbows had different designs. In China 2000 years ago, a mechanism (a) was used with a tooth to engage the bowstring, which was mounted on the same axis as the trigger. A curved intermediate lever connected both parts, due to which the release was carried out with a light and short press. The direction of movement of the bowstring during descent is shown on the right. In the West, trigger mechanisms were first used in catapults (b). In these mechanisms, when the bowstring was released, the tooth did not fall, but rose. In medieval Europe, the most common mechanism was the escapement wheel (c); its position was fixed by a simple release lever, which hooked into a recess at the bottom of the wheel. When such a lever was pressed, the crossbow could move from its aiming position. Over time, all designs of trigger mechanisms began to use an intermediate lever to facilitate the descent.

Wind tunnel test results for the five types of arrows shown in the top picture. The tests were carried out with the participation of the author of the article at the Aerospace Research Laboratory of Purdue University. In calculations performed by W. Hickam, it was assumed that the initial speed of each arrow was 80 m/s. Although longbow arrows were unlikely to have such a speed, the accepted value was convenient for comparative analysis.

Literature

Ralph Payne-Gallwey. The crossbow, mediaeval and modern, military and sporting: its construction, history and management. Bramhall House, New York, 1958.

George M. Stevens. Crossbows: "From thirty-five years with the weapon." Crossbow Books, Huntsville, Ark., 1978.

Levkovich A.K. Crossbow. Kiev-Kharkov: Mistetstvo, 1936.

Markevich V.E. Handguns, T. 1. Weapons before the introduction of smokeless powders. - L.: Artillery Academy of the Red Army named after. Dzerzhinsky, 1937.

Shkolyar S.A. Chinese pre-gun artillery. - M.: Nauka, 1980.

Publication:
In the world of science. March 1985, pp. 66-72 (Scientific American. January 1985, pp. 104-110)

Like many centuries ago, the design of the crossbow remains virtually unchanged

Compound bow with split limbs

Fiberglass and aluminum are ideal materials for crossbow arrows and bolts. Often the bolts have a threaded insert on the front cut of the shaft, which allows you to change the tip from a sporting one to a hunting one and vice versa. A hunting point is most often equipped with three or more steel blades

1.Castle

The lock secures the crossbow string in the cocked state. The principle of its operation is based in one form or another on a design invented by the ancient Chinese: when cocked, the bowstring snaps a “nut” onto a spring-loaded trigger. Subsequently, this design was continuously modernized, became more complex, and acquired adjustments, fuses, and additional parts to facilitate descent. Even an electronic trigger mechanism is not uncommon on expensive sports models.

Unlike a firearm trigger, in which a lot of force is not required to hold the “striking pin,” the parts of a crossbow lock bear all the power of its shoulders, so high-strength steel is most often used for their manufacture, and less often, titanium or composite materials. Although some “craftsmen” try to make locks from aluminum, they do not last long and, as a rule, apart from injuries, they do not bring any other joy to their owners.

2.Box

The stock is the basis of the crossbow. It is the design and materials of the stock that determine the convenience, comfort and appearance of the entire crossbow. For a hunter, the stock will be light and flexible, for an athlete it will be long and heavy, with numerous adjustments, in the gift version it will be expensive and beautiful, with carvings and inlays, and for children it will be small and safe, pistol-type. The most suitable material is wood or glued veneer. Plastic is not welcome. But not any tree is suitable for creating a stock; it is best to use walnut, oak, mahogany for these purposes, that is, strong and tough types of wood.

3. Shoulders (arches)

The arms of a crossbow are the elastic elements of a bow that store the human mechanical energy produced during the draw for the subsequent shot. The shoulders are attached directly to the stock; on powerful crossbows - to the stock through a metal block (5). Crossbow bow designs are divided into traditional and compound.

In turn, the shoulders can be straight or curved (recursive), have a monolithic or separate structure.

The traditional design is a regular bow as we understand it, the ends of which are tied with a string. In the block design, blocks (round or eccentric) are fixed at the ends of the arms, through which the bowstring is passed. Due to these blocks, the process of cocking a crossbow is significantly simplified, while the power of the shot remains the same.

The most common materials for the production of shoulders are reinforced fiberglass, carbon fiber reinforced plastic, and duralumin. Previously, when materials were tight, old springs from Moskvich were used as a blank for the bow. Not only was such a crossbow incredibly heavy and massive, it was dangerous, since the steel tended to burst at the most inopportune moment, scattering sharp fragments in different directions. Therefore, subsequently they began to put a protective bandage on such bows, and then they completely abandoned this material.

4. Stirrup

The crossbow stirrup is designed to facilitate the cocking process. The stirrup can be loop-shaped or T-shaped. In both cases, the shooter’s legs hold the crossbow by the stirrup while the string is tensioned.

5. Block

The block is the second most important component of a crossbow after the lock. This element plays a connecting role between the shoulders and the rest of the crossbow structure. It is the block that bears the entire load of the arcs in their pure form. It is the block that must withstand enormous loads during a shot. It is on the block that all the energy of the so-called “reverse recoil” occurs, when the arrow has already flown out, and the shoulders continue to straighten further at enormous speed. That's why so much attention is paid to the block. Typically, high-strength steel is used for the block; on expensive crossbows, titanium is used. Although I sometimes met crazy would-be designers who put an aluminum profile block on their 80-kilogram crossbows. And then they wondered why, after a dozen shots, she was turning inside out.

6. Bowstring

The bowstring of modern crossbows is a thread folded several times, followed by braiding of the rubbing parts. The best choice for a bowstring is a strong and low-stretch thread, such as Dacron, Dacron, aramid thread (commonly known as Kevlar) or a foreign analogue of Fast-Fligh. On powerful crossbows, as well as on auxiliary bowstrings of block crossbows, a steel cable is used.

7. Guide

The crossbow's guide, as the name suggests, is designed to hold the arrow and guide it towards the target. In medieval crossbows, the groove was made either directly in the stock, or in the form of a bone plate with a groove. On the simplest modern crossbows, a plastic guide is glued directly on top of the stock. On more “advanced” ones, the guide plate is made of a material that has sufficient anti-friction properties so that the arrow moves along it easily and evenly, and the bowstring wears out as slowly as possible. In systems with high tension forces, it is even recommended to use oil to lubricate the guide. Such a guide is fixedly attached to the body of the crossbow, or two guide plates are used, located at some distance from each other. As for the distance between the guides (groove), its dimensions depend on the diameter of the arrows used, as well as the height of the tail. As a rule, the width of the groove (with chamfers removed) should be such that the axis of the arrow intersects the center of the bowstring, which in turn should lie (without vertical force) on the upper surface of the stock and move parallel to it when fired.

8. Sighting device

Due to the steep trajectory of the arrow, the installation and design of crossbow sights has its own characteristics. The sights used are divided into three categories: open, diopter and optical.

Below we will look at each of them separately, along with the design features in more detail.

Open. This design is a development of the idea of ​​a bow sight. The fixed rear sight is complemented by a console mounted next to the bow, on which a set (three to five pieces) of horizontal front sights (each can be adjusted horizontally and vertically) for different shooting distances (the so-called “comb”) is attached. When aiming, the shooter selects the desired height of the front sight depending on the shooting distance.

Dioptric. Basically, these sights are installed on sports crossbows and are identical in design to sights for bullet sports. All the differences are only in the front sight: it has a wide range of adjustments and can be equipped with a leveling level to control the “blockage” of the weapon. In addition, it is usually possible to tilt the diopter itself and its front sight in order to eliminate the ellipse of the front sight if they do not match in height. On the other hand, there is a tendency to move away from the firearms ideology of aiming. Nowadays they prefer to carry out all micrometric adjustments on the front sight, while the diopter itself remains stationary.

Optical. Existing designs for bullet weapons are quite suitable for installation on crossbows. You just need to remember that the mount has a bevel towards the target of about one or two degrees.

The material was prepared with the assistance of the Interloper crossbow center

INTRODUCTION

A crossbow is an advanced bow that allows the shooter to aim without straining the bowstring. It improves accuracy and penetrating power and can be used by people who do not have the accuracy and strength required for an archer. Crossbow appeared around 500 BC. in China, by the 12th century it had spread to Europe; At first it was used as a military weapon, then it became a weapon for hunters and athletes. Homemade crossbows were used until 1918 (World War II). An arrow for a crossbow is heavier than for a bow; it is more often called a bolt. The advantages of a crossbow over a bow are obvious: greater penetrating power (some crossbows penetrated any armor from 100 m), increased firing range (up to 400-450 m), but there are also disadvantages: long reload time, high cost of manufacturing the trigger mechanism (as a result of which the crossbow could only be afforded by wealthy citizens), the impossibility of using it when moving on a horse (for this reason it did not find use in the East - among horse archers), as well as the fact that the crossbowman, due to the bulkiness of the crossbow, could not use other types of weapons, his had to be defended - this required good organization of the army. Therefore, the crossbow received its main distribution only by the 14th century AD. The bow for the crossbow was originally made similarly to composite bows - from several materials, but with the advent of damask steel and Damascus steel, the composite was forgotten - the tension force of such a crossbow did not exceed the tension force of the bow, and it was no longer advisable to use it.

Crossbow shooting is different from archery and involves three stages:

1. Tension. In the simplest version, the shooter pulls the bowstring with his hands and fixes it with a restraining stop, while the crossbow is fixed with his foot using a special bracket. Over time, tensioning devices appeared, which made it possible to use more powerful bows.

2. Bolt application. The shooter holds the crossbow at a slight upward angle and places the bolt in the groove, with the back end of the bolt resting on the bowstring stop. Some crossbows have a spring to hold the bolt in place, allowing you to shoot at any angle and in any direction.

3. Aiming and shooting. The crossbow is applied to the shoulder like a gun, aiming is done by analogy.

Devices for tensioning the bowstring:

1. Brace for leg and both arms. The method was used with relatively weak bows.

2. Tension strap with hook. The leg fixes the crossbow, as in the first method, the shooter bends, the hook on the belt engages the bowstring, and when the shooter straightens, the bowstring is tightened and fixed.

3. An improved version of method 2: a rope with a movable roller, also attached to a belt, is used.

4. "Goat's leg." The shooter places both curved levers on pins protruding from both sides of the stock, the opposite end pulls towards himself, dragging the bowstring with his movable paws.

5. Release lever. The hook hooks onto the bracket at the front of the stock and pushes the bowstring back.

6. Gate with rack and pinion. Appeared around 1450 in Germany. The bowstring is tensioned through the collar. Used for the most powerful crossbows. It was popular among hunters, since the military was not satisfied with the draw speed and low rate of fire.

7. Built-in tension lever.

Methods for tensioning a crossbow string.

There were varieties of crossbows for shooting bullets or stones. Their difference is a forked bowstring with a pocket for a bullet. In the 19th century, China began to use repeating crossbows, which used non-feathered bolts that were fed automatically from the magazine when the bowstring was pulled.

They had a good range and were more powerful than most bows, but took much longer to reload. On average, most crossbowmen fired 2 shots per minute.

The crossbow was held horizontally and fired using a trigger mechanism that released a tight bowstring. To load the crossbow, it was placed on the ground and supported with one's foot. The string was pulled back with both hands or using a device. The crossbow fired a projectile that was much shorter than a regular arrow. It had feathers to stabilize it in flight and had a pointed end.

The crossbowman often carried a passive shield in battle to provide coverage while reloading. It was a tall shield with wooden bracelets attached. A squad of crossbowmen was a wall of such shields. As they fired, only the crossbows and their helmeted heads emerged from the shield wall. This kind of detachment forced the enemy to retreat in open space.

The crossbow was a deadly weapon and was very popular for the simple reason that it took little time to learn how to shoot. Relatively raw soldiers could become skilled crossbowmen in a short time, and a well-aimed shot could kill an armored knight who took a long time to train. The crossbow was considered criminal in some circles (knights, especially) because it required such little skill. Richard I of England, the Lionheart, was wounded twice by crossbow arrows. The idea of ​​such great people being easily killed by ordinary soldiers or even worse was terrible for noble people. In the twelfth century, the Pope tried to ban the crossbow as an inhumane weapon.

1. COMBAT CROSSBOW XIV-XVI CENTURIES. Bow, originally “compound”, from the beginning of the 15th century. replaced by steel. Tension force up to 200 kg. The tension was carried out by a “goat’s leg” - an iron lever of a complex shape resting on two protrusions. When turning the lever, with increasing tension force, the radius of rotation of the lever decreased. Firing range up to 300 m. Rate of fire - 2-3 bpm. The descent is "nut". Worn on the shoulder or belt.

2. COMBAT AND HUNTING CROSSBOW XIV-XVII CENTURIES. Bow, originally “compound”, from the beginning of the 15th century. replaced by steel. The tension force reached 300 kg. It was tensioned with a “German collar” - a gear rack with two claws in an iron case with a gearbox. Firing range - 300-400 m. Rate of fire - 1-2 bpm. The trigger is a rotating “nut” with notches at the top (for the bowstring) and at the bottom (for the nose of the trigger guard). In combat crossbows, the trigger guard is simply a lever on an axis; in hunting crossbows, it is a complex and very delicate device. Worn on a belt or near the saddle.

3. COMBAT AND HUNTING CROSSBOW XI-XIII CENTURIES. The bow belongs to the type of “complex” bow - glued together from wood, covered on the inside with bone plates, on the outside with tendons and covered with birch bark. Tension force up to 120 kg. It is tightened with a foot inserted into the stirrup and a hook on the belt. Firing range up to 200 m. Sighting range, like all crossbows, is about 60 m. Rate of fire - up to 4 bolts/min. The descent is a notch with an ejector or a retractable stop. Worn on a belt over the shoulder.

4. ITALIAN BULLET HUNTING CROSSBOW XVI-XVII CENTURIES. Ballestra Steel bow with complex profile. The bowstring has a special leather or wicker socket for a lead bullet. Tension force 25-30 kg. Firing range up to 100 m. Sighting range up to 20 m. Pulled by hand. Rate of fire up to 6 bullets per minute. Used for court hunting of small birds, usually by women.

5. HUNTING CROSSBOW XVII-XVIII CENTURIES. The bow is steel, often from earlier crossbows. Tension force up to 200 kg. It was pulled by a “goat leg” - a two-part lever made of wood. Firing range up to 200 m. Rate of fire 2-3 bpm. The descent is a notch with a stopper. Worn on a belt over the shoulder. When installing a bar with a groove over the bowstring, it was possible to shoot lead bullets from a crossbow.

6. COMBAT CROSSBOW XIV - EARLY XVI CENTURIES. AND TARGET XVI-XVIII CENTURIES. Steel bow. Tension force - up to 530 kg. It is tensioned with an “English collar” - a system of blocks, pulleys and a collar. The weaker crossbows had one block, the most powerful - 4. Firing range - 300-700 m. Rate of fire - no more than 1 bpm. The descent is "nut". The collar was worn on the belt, the crossbow on the shoulder.

DO IT YOURSELF - Crossbow "Housebreaker"

(click on the picture to enlarge it)

The crossbow is made from springs from Moskvich. Dimensions are visible from the photo. The tension unit allows even a teenager to cock a crossbow into combat mode. The cable is tensioned in two steps and secured.

The suspended boom flight is at least 400 meters. Tension force up to 50 kg. The device for making arrows allows you to obtain round blanks from blocks of wood (preferably hardwood - oak, hornbeam, beech) using a drill. The stabilizer is made of thick electrical cardboard.

The optical sight with laser pointer is not shown in the photo.

BLUEPRINTS

DO IT YOURSELF - Crossbow "Lord"

Characteristics:
Medieval crossbow 14-15 centuries, England, with a collar.
Length with stirrup - 850 mm
Weight - 4 kg, with collar - 5.5 kg
Spindle arrows, beech, birch, feathering - leather 2.5 mm thick. Bolt weight 70 grams, length - 350 mm
The arc is made from a spring from a ZIL car. Length - 700 mm, width: in the middle 45 mm, at the edges 25 mm; thickness: in the middle 8 mm, at the edges - 6 mm
Arc force more than 150 kg
Trigger - walnut with a diameter of 32 mm and a thickness of 25 mm
Arc in protective casing (skin)
The stock is made of oak; covered with natural linseed oil
Bowstring - polyamide thread, finished bowstring diameter 10 mm
The stock is made of horn, the groove is made of mahogany
Decorative overlays - brass, etched pattern
The gate is made of steel, the blocks are brass
The time for charging a crossbow using a collar is 40-50 seconds. The force was not measured, but even children loaded quite easily
Rope on the collar - nylon
Arc fastening - using steel wedges
Aimed firing range - 250 meters
Bolt flight range - more than 1000 meters

It took several months to collect materials for the gate.

When shooting at close targets up to 100 meters, the wooden part of the bolts was destroyed when they hit the target, punching through a board 8 cm thick.

TRIGGER MECHANISMS

Mechanism?1.

The drawing is schematic and the arrangement of parts is rather arbitrary, but I think everything is clear. Approximate length 8-9 cm.

Mechanism?2.

Mechanism?3.

Mechanism?4.

BEST CROSSBOWS 2007

Modern powerful crossbows come in match and field crossbows. It is known that the invention of the field crossbow is attributed to American Marine archers. The ammunition of a field crossbow is feathered arrows, duralumin or carbon. In field crossbow shooting competitions, a standard five-color bow target is used. Competition tension is 43 kg, outdoor shooting distances are 35, 50 and 65 meters, indoors are 10 and 18 meters.

Match crossbows fire unfeathered bolts, and the tension when shooting from 10 meters is 70 kg, and at a distance of 30 meters - 120 kg. Competitions take place in closed or semi-indoor areas - specially equipped shooting ranges.

It is worth noting that in terms of their combat characteristics, and most importantly, their versatility of use, modern, technologically advanced crossbows are in many ways superior to firearms in specific conditions of use. For example, during the Vietnam campaign, crossbows performed well and entered the arsenal of American rapid reaction units.

First of all, crossbows have such an important quality as noiselessness. The absence of interacting metal parts eliminates the clanging noise that accompanies shots even from low-noise and silent rifles and pistols. In addition, the energy capacity of modern materials used to create such crossbows, such as the Tenpoint Pro Elite (the best crossbow of the year according to the American magazine Inside Archery) or the Stryker (the best new technologies from Outdoor Canada), significantly exceeds the muzzle energy of a nine-millimeter bullet fired from a pistol.

What are the features, what is the beauty of hunting with a crossbow? Each hunter chooses the type of hunting that is most pleasant to him and, as they say, “what is Caesar’s is Caesar’s, and what is mechanic’s is to the mechanic.” Some people like to stand on a tower near a salt marsh and wait for their doomed victim, some are interested in driving a crowd of animals and shooting them as an enemy of the people, and some enjoy hunting with a crossbow. For many people, hunting with a crossbow is not a hobby, but an exciting sport. The main feature of hunting with a crossbow is that the hunter becomes on an equal footing with the victim, he creates for himself the conditions of hunting centuries ago, complicates the hunting process and, accordingly, increases its prestige. Anyone can kill a wild boar with a screw cutter, and there’s nothing special to be proud of. If you want to eat, buy pork and eat, and if you want hunting, sport, courage, put your multi-shot gun aside, pick up a crossbow and go into the forest - show your peasant prowess. The main beauty of hunting with a crossbow is that such hunting is almost silent. A rifle shot can be heard several kilometers away, and all the people and animals in the area know who, where and with what caliber... A shot from a crossbow is almost silent - a light clap that drowns in the foliage after a hundred meters. There are often cases when the bird does not even fly away and there is an opportunity to reload, make adjustments and shoot again.

What does it take to successfully hunt with a crossbow?

Of course, the crossbow itself. Modern crossbows can be divided into two classes - classic crossbows with recursive (curved) arms and block crossbows, equipped with a system of eccentric blocks that facilitate loading the crossbow and speed up the acceleration of the arrow.

Recurve crossbows have a number of advantages - they are lightweight, easy to use and extremely reliable. Having arms with a pulling force of more than 50 kg, recurve crossbows are suitable for hunting any small, large animal and bird. They are easy to assemble and disassemble and easy to transport. They are versatile for long hikes, where every kilogram counts. Heavy block crossbows are good for outdoor hunting of large, often dangerous animals, when a large reserve of power and high energy are needed. A compound crossbow is not always needed.

Shooting a capercaillie or a beaver with a block gun is the same as shooting sparrows from a cannon.

In general, crossbows are perfect for various types of hunting: both “from ambush” and “from the approach.” Modern crossbows most often have arms made of high-modulus composite materials, devoid of “fatigue” - the crossbow can be carried cocked for several hours - this gives the hunter the opportunity to quickly shoot at an unexpected target.

The only type of hunting in which a crossbow is useless is shooting at a flying target - it is extremely difficult, almost impossible, to hit.

How powerful should a hunting crossbow be?

The power of a crossbow theoretically depends on two parameters:

1) the force that the arc develops at the limit point of the bowstring stroke;

2) the ultimate ability of the arc to bend or the stroke (excursion) of the bowstring. There are eccentrics who dream of buying a crossbow with a pulling force of 200 kilograms or more. Of course, these are crazy ideas.

For confident shooting at large ungulates at a distance of up to 50 meters, a crossbow with a tension force of 50-70 kg is sufficient. For wild boar hunting, it is better to take a crossbow that is a little more powerful - with shoulders of about 80 kg. I want to emphasize once again that you should not chase power - correctly selected ammunition and good shooting skills will give you much more advantages than monstrous power arms.

Sights.

The main feature of sighting devices is determined by the ballistics of the flight of a projectile (arrow, bolt), which causes a significant change in the position of the aiming line relative to the line of departure with a slight change in the distance to the target. Modern crossbows always have a dovetail, on which you can install whatever your heart desires.

In fact, a crossbow does not need a powerful optic greater than 4x. 4X32 or 4X24 is optimal, but it is best to use a collimator sight - it is convenient both during the day and at dusk, when you need to aim with both eyes.

The collimator is also good for quick shooting at moving targets. I recommend a collimator as the optimal sighting device for crossbows.

What ammunition is used for crossbow hunting?

For hunting large game, it is advisable to use professional, branded arrows (bolts) made of carbon or fiberglass - they are very light, durable with ideal geometry and correct “weight distribution”. Sometimes you can find good aluminum arrows, but they are more suitable for practice shooting or “feather” hunting.

Often, hunting arrows have a threaded insert on the front section of the shaft, which allows you to change the tip from a sporting one to a hunting one and vice versa. A hunting tip is most often equipped with three or more steel blades; in some cases, the tips are collapsible with the ability to replace individual blades.

The fletching of hunting arrows is always longer than that of sporting arrows. This is explained by the fact that the arrow must instantly stabilize in flight and take a firing position; this is especially important when shooting at short distances - up to 30 meters. The length of the arrow usually corresponds to the guide of the crossbow and the excursion of the bowstring - most often hunting arrows range from 40 to 50 cm in length.

The weight of a hunting arrow is approximately 30-35 grams.

Arrows for hunting birds and small game are usually shorter and lighter, their maximum weight is 25 grams and their length is 30 cm. Fiberglass and aluminum are ideal materials for cheap, “bird” arrows.

Harpoon arrows for hunting fish deserve special mention. By the way, in America, shooting fish with a crossbow and bow is a popular pastime, similar to our spear hunting. The harpoon arrow has a special needle-shaped shape, which allows the arrow to move easily under water and a tip with a “tooth” in the form of a spear. On the butt plate of the arrow there is a small hook to which a nylon thread is tied; the thread itself, in turn, is wound on an inertia-free reel and attached to the crossbow.

Optimal distance for shooting with a crossbow.

For hunting, it is advisable to use a crossbow with such power that a conventionally straight shot at the chest figure is at least 50 meters. The trajectory of a crossbow arrow has its own characteristics and is difficult to calculate at long distances, so it is advisable to shoot at a distance of a conventionally direct shot - up to 50-60 meters. You don’t have to worry about accuracy of fire - any decent crossbow is several times superior to a smoothbore gun in accuracy of fire.

Where to shoot?

Killer places for crossbow shooting are not only the chest and neck, but also the stomach. For example, a wild boar, after an arrow hits the stomach area, simply sits on the ground and screams, a couple of seconds and the second, control arrow stops the torment. The most “killer” places, of course, are the neck and chest: a hunting arrow easily spreads the ribs and, even breaking one of its blades, goes deep inside and inflicts fatal wounds. When an adult deer is hit in the chest with a “60-pound” crossbow from a distance of about 50 meters, the arrow travels 20 centimeters inward and reaches vital organs. If the tip was fastened “tightly” and cannot be unscrewed, then it is no longer possible to remove the arrow from the victim, you can only cut it out.

How humane is hunting with a crossbow?

Firstly, a hunter with a crossbow has only one responsible shot and must clearly decide whether to shoot or not. If the distance or power of the crossbow does not allow you to confidently kill the animal, it is better not to shoot at all. A crossbowman never fires like a madman at the bushes in bursts - everything is always decided by one single arrow.

Secondly, it has long been proven that a shot from a crossbow at distances of up to 60-70 meters is more effective compared to a bullet. Unlike a bullet, an arrow does not have a shock or stopping effect; more precisely, the “stopping effect” is achieved in a different way - a crossbow or archery arrow, hitting the victim’s body, does not allow movement, paralyzes.

Possessing a three-blade tip, the arrow causes serious damage and causes rapid blood loss.

There are practically no wounded animals in crossbow hunting, so hunting with a crossbow is more humane than with other types of hunting weapons.

What should you pay attention to when hunting with a crossbow?

First of all, safety precautions. This technique is exactly the same as that of firearms, only with minor additions. The most important thing is that while shooting, it is important to vigilantly watch the fingers of your left hand - they should not fall on the line of movement of the bowstring - we don’t have so many fingers to spread them out.

It is necessary to carefully monitor the shoulders of the crossbow so that during the shot the shoulders do not hit branches or foreign objects. It is also necessary to monitor the condition of the bowstring - it should not have any visible damage or tears that could cause the bowstring to rupture during the shot. Blank shots should not be allowed - they can damage the shoulders and bowstring. Otherwise, the rules for handling a crossbow are based on the same laws of reason and rules of conduct for hunting.

© "Encyclopedia of Technologies and Methods" Patlakh V.V. 1993-2007